Development of Antifouling Strategies for Marine Applications

Abstract

Marine biofouling is an undeniable challenge for aquatic systems since it is responsible for several environmental and ecological problems and economic losses. Several strategies have been developed to mitigate fouling-related issues in marine environments, including developing marine coatings using nanotechnology and biomimetic models, and incorporating natural compounds, peptides, bacteriophages, or specific enzymes on surfaces. The advantages and limitations of these strategies are discussed in this review, and the development of novel surfaces and coatings is highlighted. The performance of these novel antibiofilm coatings is currently tested by in vitro experiments, which should try to mimic real conditions in the best way, and/or by in situ tests through the immersion of surfaces in marine environments. Both forms present their advantages and limitations, and these factors should be considered when the performance of a novel marine coating requires evaluation and validation. Despite all the advances and improvements against marine biofouling, progress toward an ideal operational strategy has been slow given the increasingly demanding regulatory requirements. Recent developments in self-polishing copolymers and fouling-release coatings have yielded promising results which set the basis for the development of more efficient and eco-friendly antifouling strategies.

Keywords: antifouling strategies; antifouling surfaces; biofilms; marine biofouling; marine coatings.

Figure 1

Representation of the marine biofouling process and the main parameters/factors that affect microfouling and macrofouling events. Microfouler organisms include mainly marine bacteria, cyanobacteria, and diatoms, while macrofouler organisms comprise algae, corals, sponges, anemones, tunicates, hydroids, and additional marine invertebrates (soft macrofouler organisms), as well as barnacles, mussels, bryozoans, and tuberworms (hard macrofouler organisms). This image was created with the software BioRender (https://biorender.com/).

Figure 2

Main consequences of marine biofouling. This graphic representation shows the major effects of marine biofouling on submerged devices/equipment, such as sensors, buoys, cameras, aquaculture facilities, ships, and oil and gas platforms. This image was created with the software BioRender (https://biorender.com/).

Figure 3

Preventive and control methodologies to mitigate marine biofouling effects.