Why humans kill animals and why we cannot avoid it

Benjamin L Allen¹, Christopher Bobier², Stuart Dawson³, Peter J S Fleming⁴, Jordan Hampton⁵, David Jachowski⁶, Graham I H Kerley⁷, John D C Linnell⁸, Kelly Marnewick⁹, Liaan Minnie¹⁰, Mike Muthersbaugh⁶, M Justin O'Riain¹¹, Dan Parker¹², Gilbert Proulx¹³, Michael J Somers¹⁴, Keifer Titus⁶

Affiliations

¹ University of Southern Queensland, Institute for Life Sciences and the Environment, Toowoomba, Queensland 4350, Australia; Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha 6034, South Africa. Electronic address: benjamin.allen@usq.edu.au.
² Department of Theology and Philosophy, Saint Mary's University of Minnesota, Winona, MN, USA.
³ Terrestrial Ecosystem Science and Sustainability, Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia 6150, Australia; Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, South Perth, Western Australia 6151, Australia.
⁴ University of Southern Queensland, Institute for Life Sciences and the Environment, Toowoomba, Queensland 4350, Australia; Ecosystem Management, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia; Vertebrate Pest Research Unit, New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Orange Agricultural Institute, Orange, New South Wales 2800, Australia.
⁵ Terrestrial Ecosystem Science and Sustainability, Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia 6150, Australia; Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville 3052, Victoria, Australia.
⁶ Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA.
⁷ Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha 6034, South Africa.
⁸ Norwegian Institute of Nature Research, Vormstuguveien 40, 2624 Lillehammer, Norway; Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Anne Evenstads vei 80, NO-2480 Koppang, Norway.
⁹ Department of Nature Conservation, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria 0001, South Africa.
¹⁰ Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha 6034, South Africa; School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, Mbombela 1200, South Africa.
¹¹ Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Upper Campus, Rondebosch 7700, South Africa.
¹² School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, Mbombela 1200, South Africa.
¹³ Alpha Wildlife Research & Management Ltd, Sherwood Park, Alberta T8H 1W3, Canada.
¹⁴ Mammal Research Institute, Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.

PMID: 37406694
DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165283

Review

Why humans kill animals and why we cannot avoid it

Benjamin L Allen et al. Sci Total Environ. 2023.

. 2023 Oct 20:896:165283.

doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165283. Epub 2023 Jul 3.

Authors

Affiliations

¹ University of Southern Queensland, Institute for Life Sciences and the Environment, Toowoomba, Queensland 4350, Australia; Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha 6034, South Africa. Electronic address: benjamin.allen@usq.edu.au.
² Department of Theology and Philosophy, Saint Mary's University of Minnesota, Winona, MN, USA.
³ Terrestrial Ecosystem Science and Sustainability, Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia 6150, Australia; Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, South Perth, Western Australia 6151, Australia.
⁴ University of Southern Queensland, Institute for Life Sciences and the Environment, Toowoomba, Queensland 4350, Australia; Ecosystem Management, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia; Vertebrate Pest Research Unit, New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Orange Agricultural Institute, Orange, New South Wales 2800, Australia.
⁵ Terrestrial Ecosystem Science and Sustainability, Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia 6150, Australia; Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville 3052, Victoria, Australia.
⁶ Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA.
⁷ Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha 6034, South Africa.
⁸ Norwegian Institute of Nature Research, Vormstuguveien 40, 2624 Lillehammer, Norway; Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Anne Evenstads vei 80, NO-2480 Koppang, Norway.
⁹ Department of Nature Conservation, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria 0001, South Africa.
¹⁰ Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha 6034, South Africa; School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, Mbombela 1200, South Africa.
¹¹ Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Upper Campus, Rondebosch 7700, South Africa.
¹² School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, Mbombela 1200, South Africa.
¹³ Alpha Wildlife Research & Management Ltd, Sherwood Park, Alberta T8H 1W3, Canada.
¹⁴ Mammal Research Institute, Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.

PMID: 37406694
DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165283

Abstract

Killing animals has been a ubiquitous human behaviour throughout history, yet it is becoming increasingly controversial and criticised in some parts of contemporary human society. Here we review 10 primary reasons why humans kill animals, discuss the necessity (or not) of these forms of killing, and describe the global ecological context for human killing of animals. Humans historically and currently kill animals either directly or indirectly for the following reasons: (1) wild harvest or food acquisition, (2) human health and safety, (3) agriculture and aquaculture, (4) urbanisation and industrialisation, (5) invasive, overabundant or nuisance wildlife control, (6) threatened species conservation, (7) recreation, sport or entertainment, (8) mercy or compassion, (9) cultural and religious practice, and (10) research, education and testing. While the necessity of some forms of animal killing is debatable and further depends on individual values, we emphasise that several of these forms of animal killing are a necessary component of our inescapable involvement in a single, functioning, finite, global food web. We conclude that humans (and all other animals) cannot live in a way that does not require animal killing either directly or indirectly, but humans can modify some of these killing behaviours in ways that improve the welfare of animals while they are alive, or to reduce animal suffering whenever they must be killed. We encourage a constructive dialogue that (1) accepts and permits human participation in one enormous global food web dependent on animal killing and (2) focuses on animal welfare and environmental sustainability. Doing so will improve the lives of both wild and domestic animals to a greater extent than efforts to avoid, prohibit or vilify human animal-killing behaviour.

Keywords: Animal ethics; Conservation biology; Culling; Factory farming; Lethal control; Veganism.

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Conflict of interest statement

Declaration of competing interest The authors have no competing interests to declare.

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Why humans kill animals and why we cannot avoid it

Affiliations

Why humans kill animals and why we cannot avoid it

Authors

Affiliations

Abstract

Conflict of interest statement

Publication types

MeSH terms