Bridging mouse and human anatomies; a knowledge-based approach to comparative anatomy for disease model phenotyping

Abstract

The laboratory mouse is the foremost mammalian model used for studying human diseases and is closely anatomically related to humans. Whilst knowledge about human anatomy has been collected throughout the history of mankind, the first comprehensive study of the mouse anatomy was published less than 60 years ago. This has been followed by the more recent publication of several books and resources on mouse anatomy. Nevertheless, to date, our understanding and knowledge of mouse anatomy is far from being at the same level as that of humans. In addition, the alignment between current mouse and human anatomy nomenclatures is far from being as developed as those existing between other species, such as domestic animals and humans. To close this gap, more in depth mouse anatomical research is needed and it will be necessary to extent and refine the current vocabulary of mouse anatomical terms.

Fig. 1

HYPERLINK "sps:id::fig1||locator::gr1||mediaobject::0" A Skeleton of a mouse relative to the human hand. B Comparison of the human and mouse proximal epiphyses of the femur. Similarity of the anatomical structures of the head of the femur (1), great trochanter (2), lesser trochanter (3), and trochanteric fossa (4) using scanning microscopy and image size correction for the mouse. Mouse images modified from Ruberte et al. (2016) with permission

Fig. 2

The quadrupedal mouse has unexpected anatomical similarities to the bipedal human, such as the presence of the clavicle (1). The clavicle in both attaches the sternum (2) and the acromion of the scapula (3). Acromial end (4), body of clavicle (5), esternal end (6). Mouse images modified from Ruberte et al. (2016) with permission

Fig. 3

Mouse and human have anatomical differences in the brain. A The human cerebral cortex is gyrencephalic with characteristic gyri (ridges) and sulci (depressions or furrows). B The mouse cerebral cortex is lissencephalic with a smooth surface and the telencephalon (1) does not cover the mesencephalon (2) and cerebellum (3). Mouse image modified from Ruberte et al. (2016) with permission

Fig. 4

A A previously purported anatomical difference between mouse and human humeri is the presence of a supratrochlear foramen (1) in the humerus of the mouse but not in the human humerus. B Variable presence of the supratrochlear foramen in humans. Trochlea of humerus (2). Mouse image modified from Ruberte et al. (2016) with permission

Fig. 5

Comparison between Cook’s and Fekete’s representations of mouse bulbourethral glands. A Cook described paired glands (1) with only one urethral recess (2). B Fekete described two paired glands (1) and two paired urethral diverticula (2) (adapted from Cook and Snell 1941)

Fig. 6

Analysis of the urethra in C57BL/6J male mice identified only one urethral recess within the bulbospongiosus muscle. A Gross dissection of the pelvis (lateral aspect). B Scanning microscopy of corrosion cast of the urethra (lateral aspect). Hematoxylin and eosin stained histological section of the root of the penis. Urethral recess (1); bulbospongiosus muscle (2); bulbourethral gland (3); corpus cavernosum (4); ischiocavernosus muscle (5); urethra membranosa (6); urethral isthmus (7), penile urethra (8); penis (9); rectum (10). Mouse images modified from Ruberte et al. (2016) with permission

Fig. 7

A Gross dissection of the root of the penis (caudal aspect). B Scanning microscopy of corrosion cast of the urethra (caudal aspect). Urethral recess (1); bulbourethral gland (2); penile urethra (3); bulbospongiosus muscle (4); ischiocavernosus muscles (5); urethra membranosa (6); bulbourethral gland ducts to the penile urethra (arrows). Mouse image modified from Ruberte et al. (6) with permission

Fig. 8

Dorsal ventral radiographs of human hand (A) and mouse forepaw (B). Diagram showing the topography and organization of mouse carpal bones (C). Alizarin stained mouse carpus (palmar aspect) (D). Carpal bones (1); metacarpal bones (2); phalanges (3); scapholunate (4); triquetral (5); pisiform (6); trapezium (7); trapezoid (8); capitate (9); hamate (10); falciform carpal bone (11), which is a sesamoid bone embedded in the flexor retinaculum and not a true carpal bone; ulnar sesamoid bone (12). Roman numerals indicate the medial to lateral order of digits