. 2023 Jul 13;19(1):50.

doi: 10.1186/s12992-023-00948-3.

Metabolic syndrome criteria and severity and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in an adult population

Silvia García^{1

2

3}, Rosario Pastor^{2

4}, Margalida Monserrat-Mesquida^{1

2

3}, Laura Álvarez-Álvarez^{5

6}, María Rubín-García^{5

6}, Miguel Ángel Martínez-González^{1

7}, Jordi Salas-Salvadó^{1

8}, Dolores Corella^{1

9}, Albert Goday^{1

10

11}, J Alfredo Martínez^{1

12

13}, Ángel M Alonso-Gómez^{1

14}, Julia Wärnberg^{1

15}, Jesús Vioque^{4

16}, Dora Romaguera^{1

3}, José Lopez-Miranda^{1

17}, Ramon Estruch^{1

18}, Francisco J Tinahones^{1

19}, José Lapetra^{1

20}, Lluís Serra-Majem^{1

21}, Blanca Riquelme-Gallego^{4

22}, Xavier Pintó^{1

23}, José J Gaforio^{4

24}, Pilar Matía²⁵, Josep Vidal²⁶, Clotilde Vázquez²⁷, Lidia Daimiel²⁸, Emilio Ros^{1

29}, Carmen Sayón-Orea^{1

5

30}, Patricia Guillem-Saiz^{1

9}, Cristina Valle-Hita^{1

8}, Robert Cabanes^{1

10}, Itziar Abete^{1

13}, Leire Goicolea-Güemez^{1

14}, Enrique Gómez-Gracia^{1

31}, Cristina Tercero-Maciá^{16

32}, Antoni Colom^{1

3}, Antonio García-Ríos^{1

17}, Sara Castro-Barquero^{1

18}, José C Fernández-García^{1

19}, José Manuel Santos-Lozano^{1

20}, Juan Carlos Cenoz^{1

33}, Rocío Barragán^{1

9}, Nadine Khoury^{1

8}, Olga Castañer^{1

10}, María Ángeles Zulet^{1

13}, Jessica Vaquero-Luna^{1

14}, Maira Bes-Rastrollo^{1

7}, Sara de Las Heras-Delgado^{1

8}, Ramon Ciurana^{1

10}, Vicente Martín-Sánchez^{5

6}, Josep A Tur^{34

35

36}, Cristina Bouzas^{1

2

3}

Affiliations

¹ CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBEROBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, 28029, Spain.
² Research Group on Community Nutrition & Oxidative Stress, University of the Balearic Islands & CIBEROBN, Guillem Colom Bldg, Campus, E-07122, Palma de Mallorca, Spain.
³ Health Research Institute of the Balearic Islands (IdISBa), Palma de Mallorca, 07120, Spain.
⁴ Faculty of Health Sciences, Catholic University of Avila, Avila, 05005, Spain.
⁵ CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, 28029, Spain.
⁶ Institute of Biomedicine (IBIOMED), University of León, Leon, 24071, Spain.
⁷ Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, University of Navarra, IDISNA, Pamplona, 31008, Spain.
⁸ Biochemistry and Biotechnology Department. Human Nutrition Unit, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, IISPV, Hospital Universitari de Sant Joan, Reus, 43201, Spain.
⁹ Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Valencia, Valencia, 46100, Spain.
¹⁰ Unit of Cardiovascular Risk and Nutrition, Institut Hospital del Mar de Investigaciones Médicas Municipal d'Investigació Mèdica (IMIM), Barcelona, 08003, Spain.
¹¹ Departament of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, 08003, Spain.
¹² Cardiometabolics Precision Nutrition Program, IMDEA Food, CEI UAM + CSIC, Madrid, 28049, Spain.
¹³ Department of Nutrition, Food Sciences, and Physiology, Center for Nutrition Research, University of Navarra, Pamplona, 31008, Spain.
¹⁴ Osakidetza Basque Health Service, Bioaraba Health Research Institute, Araba University Hospital, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Vitoria-Gasteiz, 48013, Spain.
¹⁵ Department of Nursing, School of Health Sciences, University of Málaga-IBIMA, Málaga, 29071, Spain.
¹⁶ Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández (ISABIAL-UMH), Alicante, 03550, Spain.
¹⁷ Lipids and Atherosclerosis Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Reina Sofia University Hospital, Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Cordoba (IMIBIC), University of Cordoba, Córdoba, 14004, Spain.
¹⁸ Department of Internal Medicine, IDIBAPS, Hospital Clinic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, 08036, Spain.
¹⁹ Department of Endocrinology, Virgen de la Victoria Hospital, University of Málaga, Málaga, 29010, Spain.
²⁰ Department of Family Medicine, Research Unit, Distrito Sanitario Atención Primaria Sevilla, Sevilla, 41013, Spain.
²¹ Institute for Biomedical Research, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas, 35016, Spain.
²² Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, 18071, Spain.
²³ Lipids and Vascular Risk Unit, Internal Medicine, Hospital Universitario de Bellvitge, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, 08907, Spain.
²⁴ Department of Health Sciences, Center for Advanced Studies in Olive Grove and Olive Oils, University of Jaen, Jaen, 23071, Spain.
²⁵ Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria San Carlos (IdISSC), Madrid, 28040, Spain.
²⁶ Department of Endocrinology, IDIBAPS, Hospital Clinic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, 08036, Spain.
²⁷ Department of Endocrinology, Fundación Jiménez-Díaz, Madrid, 28040, Spain.
²⁸ Precision Nutrition and Obesity Program.IMDEA Food, Nutritional Control of the Epigenome Group, CEI UAM + CSIC, Madrid, 28049, Spain.
²⁹ Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Lipid Clinic, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Hospital Clínic, Barcelona, 08036, Spain.
³⁰ Navarra Institute of Public Health. Regional Health Service of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.
³¹ Department of Public Health and Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Biomedical Research Institute of Malaga (IBIMA), University of Malaga, Málaga, 29010, Spain.
³² Centro Salud Raval, Elche-Alicante, 03203, Spain.
³³ Navarra Regional Health Service, Primary Health Care Services, Pamplona, Spain.
³⁴ CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBEROBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, 28029, Spain. pep.tur@uib.es.
³⁵ Research Group on Community Nutrition & Oxidative Stress, University of the Balearic Islands & CIBEROBN, Guillem Colom Bldg, Campus, E-07122, Palma de Mallorca, Spain. pep.tur@uib.es.
³⁶ Health Research Institute of the Balearic Islands (IdISBa), Palma de Mallorca, 07120, Spain. pep.tur@uib.es.

PMID: 37443076
PMCID: PMC10339536
DOI: 10.1186/s12992-023-00948-3

Metabolic syndrome criteria and severity and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in an adult population

Silvia García et al. Global Health. 2023.

. 2023 Jul 13;19(1):50.

doi: 10.1186/s12992-023-00948-3.

Authors

Affiliations

¹ CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBEROBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, 28029, Spain.
² Research Group on Community Nutrition & Oxidative Stress, University of the Balearic Islands & CIBEROBN, Guillem Colom Bldg, Campus, E-07122, Palma de Mallorca, Spain.
³ Health Research Institute of the Balearic Islands (IdISBa), Palma de Mallorca, 07120, Spain.
⁴ Faculty of Health Sciences, Catholic University of Avila, Avila, 05005, Spain.
⁵ CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, 28029, Spain.
⁶ Institute of Biomedicine (IBIOMED), University of León, Leon, 24071, Spain.
⁷ Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, University of Navarra, IDISNA, Pamplona, 31008, Spain.
⁸ Biochemistry and Biotechnology Department. Human Nutrition Unit, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, IISPV, Hospital Universitari de Sant Joan, Reus, 43201, Spain.
⁹ Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Valencia, Valencia, 46100, Spain.
¹⁰ Unit of Cardiovascular Risk and Nutrition, Institut Hospital del Mar de Investigaciones Médicas Municipal d'Investigació Mèdica (IMIM), Barcelona, 08003, Spain.
¹¹ Departament of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, 08003, Spain.
¹² Cardiometabolics Precision Nutrition Program, IMDEA Food, CEI UAM + CSIC, Madrid, 28049, Spain.
¹³ Department of Nutrition, Food Sciences, and Physiology, Center for Nutrition Research, University of Navarra, Pamplona, 31008, Spain.
¹⁴ Osakidetza Basque Health Service, Bioaraba Health Research Institute, Araba University Hospital, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Vitoria-Gasteiz, 48013, Spain.
¹⁵ Department of Nursing, School of Health Sciences, University of Málaga-IBIMA, Málaga, 29071, Spain.
¹⁶ Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández (ISABIAL-UMH), Alicante, 03550, Spain.
¹⁷ Lipids and Atherosclerosis Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Reina Sofia University Hospital, Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Cordoba (IMIBIC), University of Cordoba, Córdoba, 14004, Spain.
¹⁸ Department of Internal Medicine, IDIBAPS, Hospital Clinic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, 08036, Spain.
¹⁹ Department of Endocrinology, Virgen de la Victoria Hospital, University of Málaga, Málaga, 29010, Spain.
²⁰ Department of Family Medicine, Research Unit, Distrito Sanitario Atención Primaria Sevilla, Sevilla, 41013, Spain.
²¹ Institute for Biomedical Research, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas, 35016, Spain.
²² Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, 18071, Spain.
²³ Lipids and Vascular Risk Unit, Internal Medicine, Hospital Universitario de Bellvitge, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, 08907, Spain.
²⁴ Department of Health Sciences, Center for Advanced Studies in Olive Grove and Olive Oils, University of Jaen, Jaen, 23071, Spain.
²⁵ Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria San Carlos (IdISSC), Madrid, 28040, Spain.
²⁶ Department of Endocrinology, IDIBAPS, Hospital Clinic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, 08036, Spain.
²⁷ Department of Endocrinology, Fundación Jiménez-Díaz, Madrid, 28040, Spain.
²⁸ Precision Nutrition and Obesity Program.IMDEA Food, Nutritional Control of the Epigenome Group, CEI UAM + CSIC, Madrid, 28049, Spain.
²⁹ Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Lipid Clinic, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Hospital Clínic, Barcelona, 08036, Spain.
³⁰ Navarra Institute of Public Health. Regional Health Service of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.
³¹ Department of Public Health and Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Biomedical Research Institute of Malaga (IBIMA), University of Malaga, Málaga, 29010, Spain.
³² Centro Salud Raval, Elche-Alicante, 03203, Spain.
³³ Navarra Regional Health Service, Primary Health Care Services, Pamplona, Spain.
³⁴ CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBEROBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, 28029, Spain. pep.tur@uib.es.
³⁵ Research Group on Community Nutrition & Oxidative Stress, University of the Balearic Islands & CIBEROBN, Guillem Colom Bldg, Campus, E-07122, Palma de Mallorca, Spain. pep.tur@uib.es.
³⁶ Health Research Institute of the Balearic Islands (IdISBa), Palma de Mallorca, 07120, Spain. pep.tur@uib.es.

PMID: 37443076
PMCID: PMC10339536
DOI: 10.1186/s12992-023-00948-3

Abstract

Background: Metabolic syndrome (MetS) has become a growing risk factor of some non-communicable diseases. Increase of greenhouse gas emissions affects the planet.

Aims: To assess the association between MetS severity and amount of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emitted in an adult population.

Design: Cross-sectional study (n = 6646; 55-76-year-old-men; 60-75-year-old-women with MetS).

Methods: Dietary habits were assessed using a pre-validated semi quantitative 143-item food frequency questionnaire. The amount of CO₂ emitted due to the production of food consumed by person and day was calculated using a European database, and the severity of the MetS was calculated with the MetS Severity Score.

Results: Higher glycaemia levels were found in people with higher CO₂ emissions. The risk of having high severe MetS was related to high CO₂ emissions.

Conclusions: Low CO₂ emissions diet would help to reduce MetS severity. Advantages for both health and the environment were found following a more sustainable diet.

Trial registration: ISRCTN, ISRCTN89898870 . Registered 05 September 2013.

Keywords: CO2 emissions; Diet; Environment; Glycaemia; Metabolic syndrome; Non-communicable diseases.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

J.S.-S. reported receiving research support from the Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia, the European Commission, the USA National Institutes of Health; receiving consulting fees or travel expenses from Eroski Foundation and Instituto Danone, receiving nonfinancial support from Hojiblanca, Patrimonio Comunal Olivarero, the California Almond Board of California, Pistachio Growers and Borges S.A; serving on the board of and receiving grant support through his institution from the International Nut and Dried Foundation and the Eroski Foundation; and personal fees from Instituto Danone Spain; Serving in the Board of Danone Institute International. D.C. reported receiving grants from Instituto de Salud Carlos III. R.E. reported receiving grants from Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Fundación Dieta Meditarránea and Cerveza y Salud and olive oil for the trial from Fundación Patrimonio Comunal Olivarero and personal fees from Brewers of Europe, Fundación Cerveza y Salud, Interprofesional del Aceite de Oliva, Instituto Cervantes in Albuquerque, Milano and Tokyo, Pernod Ricard, Fundación Dieta Mediterránea (Spain), Wine and Culinary International Forum and Lilly Laboratories; non-financial support from Sociedad Española de Nutrición and Fundación Bosch y Gimpera; and grants from Uriach Laboratories. The rest of the authors have declared that no competing interests exist. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

Figures

**Fig. 1**
Flow chart of participant inclusion

**Fig. 2**
Predictive margins between kg CO₂ quartiles and MetS severity with 95%CI

See this image and copyright information in PMC

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Metabolic syndrome criteria and severity and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in an adult population

Affiliations

Metabolic syndrome criteria and severity and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in an adult population

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