A Comprehensive Review of Pea (Pisum sativum L.): Chemical Composition, Processing, Health Benefits, and Food Applications

Abstract

Pisum sativum L., commonly referred to as dry, green, or field pea, is one of the most common legumes that is popular and economically important. Due to its richness in a variety of nutritional and bioactive ingredients, the consumption of pea has been suggested to be associated with a wide range of health benefits, and there has been increasing focus on its potential as a functional food. However, there have been limited literature reviews concerning the bioactive compounds, health-promoting effects, and potential applications of pea up to now. This review, therefore, summarizes the literature from the last ten years regarding the chemical composition, physicochemical properties, processing, health benefits, and potential applications of pea. Whole peas are rich in macronutrients, including proteins, starches, dietary fiber, and non-starch polysaccharides. In addition, polyphenols, especially flavonoids and phenolic acids, are important bioactive ingredients that are mainly distributed in the pea coats. Anti-nutritional factors, such as phytic acid, lectin, and trypsin inhibitors, may hinder nutrient absorption. Whole pea seeds can be processed by different techniques such as drying, milling, soaking, and cooking to improve their functional properties. In addition, physicochemical and functional properties of pea starches and pea proteins can be improved by chemical, physical, enzymatic, and combined modification methods. Owing to the multiple bioactive ingredients in peas, the pea and its products exhibit various health benefits, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-renal fibrosis, and regulation of metabolic syndrome effects. Peas have been processed into various products such as pea beverages, germinated pea products, pea flour-incorporated products, pea-based meat alternatives, and encapsulation and packing materials. Furthermore, recommendations are also provided on how to better utilize peas to promote their development as a sustainable and functional grain. Pea and its components can be further developed into more valuable and nutritious products.

Keywords: bioactive compounds; dietary fiber; functional grain; functional properties; modifications; polyphenol.

Figure 1

Pea seeds of different surfaces, colors, and shapes [7] (reprinted with permission from the publisher).

Figure 2

Biological activities of pea and its bioactive components. Pea and its bioactive components possess various health benefits in vitro and in vivo, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti-cancer, anti-hypertensive, anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, anti-hyperlipidemia, anti-fatigue, antimicrobial, anti-osteoporosis, and anti-renal fibrosis effects. A594, lung carcinoma; ABTS, 2,2 azinobis 3-ethylbenzo-thiozoline-6-sulfonic acid; ACE, angiotensin I-converting enzyme; COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2; DPPH, 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; EAC, Ehrlich ascites carcinoma; FAA, free amino acid; FBG, fasting blood glucose; FN, fibronectin; FRAP, ferric reducing antioxidant power; FRC, ferric ion-reducing capacity; GPx, glutathione peroxidase; GSH, glutathione; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; IFN-γ, interferon-gamma; IgA+, immunoglobulin class A+; IL, interleukin; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; K562, myelogenous leukemia; LS174, human colon denocarcinoma; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; MDA, malondialdehyde; MDA-MB-453, breast carcinoma; NO, nitric oxide; OGT, oral glucose tolerance; ·OH, hydroxyl radical; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SOD, superoxide dismutase; T-AOC, total antioxidant capacity; TC, total cholesterol; TG, triglyceride; TGF-β, transforming growth factor beta; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor α.

Figure 3

The potential mechanisms of pea and its bioactive components on the regulation of metabolic disorders. (1) Pea and its bioactive ingredients have anti-hyperlipidemic effects by activating the SREBP2 pathway, upregulating LDLR expression, promoting serum LDL-C clearance, and downregulating FAS and SCD expression to inhibit fatty acid synthesis. (2) Pea and its bioactive components have anti-diabetic effects by activating the expression of GLUT1 to promote glucose absorption, upregulating the expression of the insulin receptor substrates IRS-1 and IRS-2 to reduce insulin resistance, as well as inhibiting the activity of small intestinal alpha-glucosidase and alpha-amylase and inhibiting the breakdown of dietary polysaccharides into easily absorbed oligosaccharides and monosaccharides. (3) Pea and its bioactive components have antihypertensive effects by upregulating ACE2 and MASR expression through the ACE2-Ang-(1-7)-MASR axis to improve angiotensin II-induced superoxide production, inflammation, and proliferation in vascular smooth muscle cells. (4) Pea and its bioactive components have anti-obesity effects by inducing adiponectin and insulin-responsive GLUT4 to stimulate glucose uptake and improve insulin resistance, upregulating PPARγ and aP2 expression levels to stimulate adipocyte differentiation, as well as by modestly altering the microbial status of the gut, such as downregulation of the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio, leading to changes in SCFAs and Bas. ACE, angiotensin I-converting enzyme; ADIPOR, adiponectin receptor; AMPK, adenosine 5′-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase; Ang, angiotensin; Akt, protein kinase B; aP2, adipocyte fatty acid-binding protein; BAs, bile acids; COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2; FAS, fatty acid synthase; GLUT, glucose transporter; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; IKBA, inhibitory kBa; IRS, insulin receptor substrate; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; LDLR, low-density lipoprotein receptor; MASR, Mas receptor; P13K, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; PPARγ, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ; SCD, stearoyl coenzyme A desaturase; SCFAs, short-chain fatty acids; SREBP, sterol regulatory element-binding protein.

Figure 4

Food-related applications of pea and its components. Pea and its main components are widely applied in the food system, such as pea beverages and yoghurts, germinated pea products, pea flour-incorporated products, pea-based meat alternatives, and pea-based encapsulation and packing materials.