Appraisal of Cardiovascular Risk Factors, Biomarkers, and Ocular Imaging in Cardiovascular Risk Prediction

Abstract

Cardiovascular disease remains a leading cause of death worldwide despite the use of available cardiovascular disease risk prediction tools. Identification of high-risk individuals via risk stratification and screening at sub-clinical stages, which may be offered by ocular screening, is important to prevent major adverse cardiac events. Retinal microvasculature has been widely researched for potential application in both diabetes and cardiovascular disease risk prediction. However, the conjunctival microvasculature as a tool for cardiovascular disease risk prediction remains largely unexplored. The purpose of this review is to evaluate the current cardiovascular risk assessment methods, identifying gaps in the literature that imaging of the ocular microcirculation may have the potential to fill. This review also explores the themes of machine learning, risk scores, biomarkers, medical imaging, and clinical risk factors. Cardiovascular risk classification varies based on the population assessed, the risk factors included, and the assessment methods. A more tailored, standardised and feasible approach to cardiovascular risk prediction that utilises technological and medical imaging advances, which may be offered by ocular imaging, is required to support cardiovascular disease prevention strategies and clinical guidelines.

Keywords: Cardiovascular disease; biomarkers; eye; medical imaging.; microcirculation; risk factors.

Fig. (1)

The conjunctival imaging system and its potential clinical applications.

Fig. (2)

Biomarkers associated with cardiovascular disease. Abbreviations: CRP= C-Reactive Protein; NT-proBNP= N-Terminal pro B-type Natriuretic Peptide; NADPH= Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate.

Fig. (3)

Medical imaging and clinical risk factors. ECG= Electrocardiogram, ABI= Ankle Brachial Index, FMD= Flow Mediated Dilation and CAC= Coronary Artery Calcium.