Biotechnological Applications of Mushrooms under the Water-Energy-Food Nexus: Crucial Aspects and Prospects from Farm to Pharmacy

Abstract

Mushrooms have always been an important source of food, with high nutritional value and medicinal attributes. With the use of biotechnological applications, mushrooms have gained further attention as a source of healthy food and bioenergy. This review presents different biotechnological applications and explores how these can support global food, energy, and water security. It highlights mushroom's relevance to meet the sustainable development goals of the UN. This review also discusses mushroom farming and its requirements. The biotechnology review includes sections on how to use mushrooms in producing nanoparticles, bioenergy, and bioactive compounds, as well as how to use mushrooms in bioremediation. The different applications are discussed under the water, energy, and food (WEF) nexus. As far as we know, this is the first report on mushroom biotechnology and its relationships to the WEF nexus. Finally, the review valorizes mushroom biotechnology and suggests different possibilities for mushroom farming integration.

Keywords: agro-wastes; bioenergy; mushroom farming; nanobiotechnology; nanoparticles; nanoremediation.

Figure 1

A flowchart showing how this study was conducted and the review prepared.

Figure 2

The concept of the water–energy–food nexus with focus on the positive (words in black) and negative (words in red) sides of the nexus on human and environmental health as society works towards sustainability.

Figure 3

Basic information on mushrooms that include methods of cultivation, different kinds of substrates, different types of spawn, and alternative cultivation methods of mushrooms.

Figure 4

Mushrooms can be part of many farming systems, including food production, livestock feeding, forestry farming, and urban mushroom farming. Mushrooms have several applications such as the remediation of polluted soil and water, producing enzymes, bioactives (examples of them and possible attributes are given in the figure), and bioenergy.

Figure 5

The relationships between mushrooms and the water–energy–food nexus, including positive and negative aspects. Mushrooms can support humanity with healthy food, but at the same time poisonous varieties can be toxic. They can produce bioenergy, but also consume O₂ and release CO₂ when cultivated indoors.

Figure 6

The role of mushroom biotechnology on the water–energy–food nexus, including the positive (pros in black color) and negative (cons in red color) aspects that may be generated due to different applications of biotechnology through certain processes, including bioconversion, biorefinery, bioremediation, and biodegradation.

Figure 7

Steps for the biosynthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) from mushrooms (like oyster mushrooms) are as follows: (1) use of mushroom extracts as biomolecules or capping or reducing agents by slicing and then drying them in the oven (2), grinding these slices and using the mushroom powder extract to prepare the aqueous extraction (3); this extraction is then filtered and freeze dried (4). Mushroom extract was added into metal solution to reduce metallic ions from (M⁺) to (M⁰) via the oxidation/reduction mechanism with continuous stirring (5) and centrifugation (6) to form clusters of NPs that were confirmed after washing (7) and characterized using techniques (8) such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and X-ray crystallography (XRD). Examples of NPs formed from mushrooms and factors that control this myco-formation are presented in the upper center of the figure (adapted from Elsakhawy et al.) [77].

Figure 8

It is important to move towards zero (0) waste from food production and processing, and the mushroom industry can help with this. General food wastes are presented in (A), whereas the generation of agro-industry residues are in (B). The cultivation of mushrooms is an important source of healthy food (C). At the same time, producing only 1 kg of fresh mushroom may generate about 5 kg of wet byproducts, or spent mushroom substrate (SMS). Thus, this waste needs to be managed through the biorefinery or circular bioeconomic approach (D).

Figure 9

The crucial roles of mushrooms to help achieve many of the UN sustainable development goals, mainly the goals based on the water–energy–food nexus.

Figure 10

Summary of research gaps in the water–energy–food nexus related to mushroom cultivation, including different attributes of each WEF resource.

Figure 11

A suggested integrated mushroom cultivation plan in a green circular agricultural system and its bioeconomy approach for a sustainable bioeconomy model (adapted from Grimm et al. [160] and Sharma et al. [161]).