Environmental Stability and Transmissibility of Enveloped Viruses at Varied Animate and Inanimate Interfaces

Abstract

Enveloped viruses have been the leading causative agents of viral epidemics in the past decade, including the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 outbreak. In epidemics caused by enveloped viruses, direct contact is a common route of infection, while indirect transmissions through the environment also contribute to the spread of the disease, although their significance remains controversial. Bridging the knowledge gap regarding the influence of interfacial interactions on the persistence of enveloped viruses in the environment reveals the transmission mechanisms when the virus undergoes mutations and prevents excessive disinfection during viral epidemics. Herein, from the perspective of the driving force, partition efficiency, and viral survivability at interfaces, we summarize the viral and environmental characteristics that affect the environmental transmission of viruses. We expect to provide insights for virus detection, environmental surveillance, and disinfection to limit the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2.

Figure 1

Surfaces and interfaces of enveloped viruses in the environment. PAH, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon; PM2.5, particles with a diameter of 2.5 μm or less; ACE-2, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2.

Figure 2

(A) The 15-rank taxonomic hierarchy of virus. Reproduced with permission from ref (28). Copyright 2020 Springer Nature. (B) Surface chemistry of enveloped virus. S, spike glycoprotein; M, membrane protein; N, nucleoprotein; E, envelope small membrane protein. (C) Representative tomographic slices of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) from the supernatant of infected cells (left) and the structure of SARS-CoV-2 S trimer and receptor-binding domain in the prefusion conformation (right). The structure was created using the Swiss PDB Viewer 3.7 with crystallographic data from the Protein Data Bank (PDB ID 6VXX). Reproduced with permission from ref (30). Copyright 2020 Springer Nature.

Figure 3

Interfaces between enveloped viruses and surrounding counterparts. (A) Exhalation distance of respiratory droplets. Reproduced with permission from ref (62). Copyright 2021 Elsevier. (B) Aerosolization of virus in wastewater systems. Reproduced from ref (77). Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society. (C) Solubilization of enveloped viruses by surfactants.

Figure 4

(A) Extended Derjaguin–Landau–Verwey–Overbeek (XDLVO) theory to describe the adsorption of viruses onto surfaces. Reproduced from ref (17). Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society. (B) Antiviral coatings and surfaces. Reproduced from ref (125). Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society. (C) Antiviral mechanisms of multifunctional masks. Reproduced with permission from ref (126). Copyright 2022 Wiley.

Figure 5

(A) Model system of a virion to illustrate the free energy changes at the interfaces. Reproduced with permission from ref (162). Copyright 2021 Springer Nature. (B) Effect of climate on virus viability. Reproduced with permission from ref (116). Copyright 2020 Wiley. (C) Effects of relative humidity on virus viability at liquid–air interfaces. Reproduced with permission from ref (93). Copyright 2020 Elsevier. (D) Virus location in droplet by fluorescent image. Reproduced with permission from ref (163). Copyright 2018 Royal Society of Chemistry.

Figure 6

(A) Partition of enveloped viruses at liquid–solid interfaces. The suspended enveloped viruses surrogate MHV and ϕ6 could adsorb on the solid in wastewater with a transfer efficiency of 26%. Reproduced from ref (172). Copyright 2016 American Chemical Society. (B) Remove of enveloped viruses from wastewater by iron coagulation. Reproduced from ref (174). Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society. (C) Model of virus transfer at liquid–skin interfaces. Reproduced from ref (182). Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society.