The Development of Stress Reactivity and Regulation in Children and Adolescents

Abstract

Adversity experienced in early life can have detrimental effects on physical and mental health. One pathway in which these effects occur is through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, a key physiological stress-mediating system. In this review, we discuss the theoretical perspectives that guide stress reactivity and regulation research, the anatomy and physiology of the axis, developmental changes in the axis and its regulation, brain systems regulating stress, the role of genetic and epigenetics variation in axis development, sensitive periods in stress system calibration, the social regulation of stress (i.e., social buffering), and emerging research areas in the study of stress physiology and development. Understanding the development of stress reactivity and regulation is crucial for uncovering how early adverse experiences influence mental and physical health.

Keywords: HPA-axis; Stress; adolescents.; children; development; regulation.

Fig. (1)

The HPA System. Panel A depicts the anatomy of the HPA system and structures important in its regulation. Abbreviations: PFCtx = prefrontal cortex, AMY = amygdala, HYP = hypothalamus, HC = hippocampus, Raphe nucleus (Raphe), Locus coeruleus (Locus), NTS = nucleus of the tractus solitarius. Panel B depicts the activation (+) and negative feedback inhibition (-) pathways of the HPA system. Increases in glucocorticoids (GCs) are initiated by the release of CRH/AVP from the mpPVN in the hypothalamus. Negative feedback inhibition operates through GCs acting at the level of the pituitary, hypothalamus and hippocampus. GCs = glucocorticoids (cortisol in humans), medial parvocellular region of the paraventricular nucleus (mpPVN), CRH = corticotropin releasing hormone, AVP = arginine vasopressin, ACTH = adrenocorticotropic hormone. (Reprinted with permission from Gunnar & Vazquez, 2006).

Fig. (2)

Schematic representation of the activating (right side) and inhibiting (left side) circuits that contribute to regulation of the HPA system. (Reprinted with permission from Gunnar & Vazquez, 2006 [13]).