Perfluorocarbons: A perspective of theranostic applications and challenges

Abstract

Perfluorocarbon (PFC) are biocompatible compounds, chemically and biologically inert, and lacks toxicity as oxygen carriers. PFCs nanoemulsions and nanoparticles (NPs) are highly used in diagnostic imaging and enable novel imaging technology in clinical imaging modalities to notice and image pathological and physiological alterations. Therapeutics with PFCs such as the innovative approach to preventing thrombus formation, PFC nanodroplets utilized in ultrasonic medication delivery in arthritis, or PFC-based NPs such as Perfluortributylamine (PFTBA), Pentafluorophenyl (PFP), Perfluorohexan (PFH), Perfluorooctyl bromide (PFOB), and others, recently become renowned for oxygenating tumors and enhancing the effects of anticancer treatments as oxygen carriers for tumor hypoxia. In this review, we will discuss the recent advancements that have been made in PFC's applications in theranostic (therapeutics and diagnostics) as well as assess the benefits and drawbacks of these applications.

Keywords: imaging; nanoparticles; oxygen carrier; perfluorocarbon (PFC); theranostic.

FIGURE 1

(A)Schematic illustration of a multifunctional liquid perfluorocarbon nanoemulsions (100–200 nm) which can be modified with another cargo targeting ligands such as aptamers and polysaccharides, intravenous injection, and then directs cellular uptake by circulating or provincial phagocytic, immune cells such as monocytes and macrophages; MRI detects the collection of these cells. (B) Post-mortem and in vivo murine cardiac 19F MRI following intramyocardial CPC injections. Reprinted with permission from Ref (Constantinides et al., 2018). Copyright (2018) by the Public Library of Science (PLOS).

FIGURE 2

Hybrid-shelled perfluorocarbon microdroplets with elevated density and thin diameter dispersal (∼1 µm) operated in ultrasound- and laser-activated phase-change approach. Reprinted image. Reprinted with permission from Ref (Palmieri et al., 2022). Copyright (2022), Elsevier.

FIGURE 3

Schematic illustration of PFCs nanoparticles with an anti-coagulation cover (PPACK (Phe [D]-Pro-Arg-Chloromethylketone) that is related to the surface of PFC-core nanoparticle with a covalent bond (Myerson et al., 2010; Myerson et al., 2011). This arrangement acted as an adequate anticoagulant and prevented thrombosis locally in the damaged vessels as a thrombin leech to inhibit thrombosis and thrombin-activated inflammatory signaling.

FIGURE 4

US-triggered perfluorocarbon (PFC)-based “nanobombs” for the targeted therapy of RA (Zhu et al., 2019). The targeted nanobombs structure includes thin-film hydration and a core of PFP-based nanodroplets (Maciejewski et al., 2021) loaded with glucocorticoid dexamethasone (Dex) and a shell of folic acid (FA)-grafted polyethylene glycol (PEG)-functionalized phospholipid (PFP-Dex@NDs-PEG-FA). The 1 MHz US is utilized as an initiator to activate the “explosion” of nanobombs and improve the drug departure as an efficient, targeted mechanism for RA therapy.

FIGURE 5

PFC NDs and NPs utilized different approaches that can present cancer therapy, such as diagnostic (yellow), thermal therapy (Red), and vascular distribution (Blue) by hypoxia effects.