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Review
. 2023 Aug 30;23(17):7518.
doi: 10.3390/s23177518.

Wearable Sensors for Respiration Monitoring: A Review

Tauseef Hussain  1 , Sana Ullah  2 , Raúl Fernández-García  1 , Ignacio Gil  1
Affiliations
Review

Wearable Sensors for Respiration Monitoring: A Review

Tauseef Hussain et al. Sensors (Basel). .

Abstract

This paper provides an overview of flexible and wearable respiration sensors with emphasis on their significance in healthcare applications. The paper classifies these sensors based on their operating frequency distinguishing between high-frequency sensors, which operate above 10 MHz, and low-frequency sensors, which operate below this level. The operating principles of breathing sensors as well as the materials and fabrication techniques employed in their design are addressed. The existing research highlights the need for robust and flexible materials to enable the development of reliable and comfortable sensors. Finally, the paper presents potential research directions and proposes research challenges in the field of flexible and wearable respiration sensors. By identifying emerging trends and gaps in knowledge, this review can encourage further advancements and innovation in the rapidly evolving domain of flexible and wearable sensors.

Keywords: breathing sensors; flexible sensors; respiration sensors; wearable sensors.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 2
Figure 2
Antenna–based respiration sensors utilizing: (a) meandering dipole antenna [24]; (b) sinusoidal dipole antenna [25]; (c) spiral dipole antenna [26]; (d) circular patch antenna [27]; (e) RFID–based respiration system [29]; (f) Bluetooth–based respiration system [31].
Figure 5
Figure 5
Capacitive sensors utilizing: (a) porous Ecoflex polymer [60]; (b) embroidery on face mask [61]; (c) PDMS composites, reprinted with permission from ref. [64]. 2021, Elsevier; (d) carbon nanofibers [65]; (e) embroidered electrodes [66].
Figure 6
Figure 6
Resistive sensors utilizing: (a) graphene–based porous structure, reprinted with permission from ref. [78]. 2022, Elsevier; (b) platinum–based perforated structure [79]; (c) conductive printing on textiles, reprinted with permission from ref. [80]. 2021, Elsevier; (d) tin disulfide/graphene oxide nanoflower on PET, reprinted with permission from ref. [87]. 2019, Elsevier.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Miscellaneous low–frequency sensors: (a) mutual inductive strain sensor [94]; (b) self–inductive displacement sensor [96]; (c) piezoelectric multi–modal sensor, reprinted with permission from ref. [101]. 2021, Elsevier; (d) bioimpedance sensor [105]; (e) inertial sensors [106].
Figure 1
Figure 1
Classification of respiration sensors based on operational frequency.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Metamaterial–based sensors: (a) modulated FSS respiratory sensor, reprinted with permission from ref. [40]. 2017, IEEE; (b) spiral resonator tag respiratory sensor, reprinted with permission from ref. [41]. 2022, IEEE; (c) typical surface plasmon resonator sensor [42]; (d) liquid metal–based flexible FSS [43]; (e) textile–based flexible metamaterial, reprinted with permission from ref. [44]. 2019, Springer Nature.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors: (a) working principle of FBG [49]; (b) application in vital signs monitoring [50]; (c) single FBG respiratory sensor [51]; (d) multiple FBG respiratory sensors [52]; (e) monitoring neck movement and respiration [53].
Figure 8
Figure 8
Typical flexible materials for wearable respiration sensors.
Figure 9
Figure 9
Fabrication techniques used for respiratory sensors: (a) printing [123]; (b) knitting [124]; (c) embroidery [125].
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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