Recent Advances in Anti-Atherosclerosis and Potential Therapeutic Targets for Nanomaterial-Derived Drug Formulations

Abstract

Atherosclerosis, the leading cause of death worldwide, is responsible for ≈17.6 million deaths globally each year. Most therapeutic drugs for atherosclerosis have low delivery efficiencies and significant side effects, and this has hampered the development of effective treatment strategies. Diversified nanomaterials can improve drug properties and are considered to be key for the development of improved treatment strategies for atherosclerosis. The pathological mechanisms underlying atherosclerosis is summarized, rationally designed nanoparticle-mediated therapeutic strategies, and potential future therapeutic targets for nanodelivery. The content of this study reveals the potential and challenges of nanoparticle use for the treatment of atherosclerosis and highlights new effective design ideas.

Keywords: atherosclerosis; drug; nanodelivery; nanoparticles; therapeutic strategy.

Figure 1

A schematic overview of the nanomaterials used to treat microenvironments containing vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques.

Figure 2

A) a) Schematic representation of the pH‐responsive SIM/ZIF‐8@HA. b) Drug release curve for SIM from SIM/ZIF‐8 and SIM/ZIF‐8@HA at different pH values. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 79 ]} Copyright 2022, Royal Society of Chemistry. B) a) Schematic representation of the pH‐responsive HR_RAP NPs that release ATR and RAP at the intima and intracellular spaces. The release behaviors of b) RAP and c) ATR from HR_RAP NPs at different pH values. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 130 ]} Copyright 2022, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Figure 3

Structural illustrations showing A) the therapeutic mechanism of RPP‐PU. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 131 ]} Copyright 2022, Elsevier Ltd. B) The therapeutic mechanism of HA‐CeO₂ NPs. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 15 ]} Copyright 2022, Elsevier Ltd. C) The therapeutic mechanism of LFP/PCDPD, reproduced with permission.^{[ 132 ]} Copyright 2022, Elsevier Ltd.

Figure 4

A) Synthesis process of SA PAM@RBCs. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 134 ]} Copyright 2021, Royal Society of Chemistry. B) Nanogel behavior under different mechanical loads. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 133 ]} Copyright 2021, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Figure 5

A) a) Schematic representation showing MM/DiDNPs.^{[ 143 ]} b) Establishment of experimental ApoE^(‐/−) mice and administration c) Oil red O staining of lipid burden in aortas. d) Quantitative analysis of lipid burden in aortas. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 143 ]} Copyright 20221, Ivyspring International Publisher. B) a) Schematic representation showing MLP‐NVs.^{[ 107 ]} b) IVIS images of nanovesicles in major organs of atherosclerotic mice. c) Representative fluorescent images of the whole aorta. Reproduced with permission.^[107] Copyright 2022, Wiley‐VCH.

Figure 6

A) Schematic illustration showing the mechanism of HA‐Fc/NP3ST nanoassemblies. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 156 ]} Copyright 2023, Elsevier Ltd. B) a) Structure illustration showing the therapeutic mechanism of HA‐CeO₂ NPs. b) Representative fluorescence images of the aorta and fluorescence intensity. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 15 ]} Copyright 2022, Elsevier Ltd.