A comprehensive review on the impact of calcium and vitamin D insufficiency and allied metabolic disorders in females

Abstract

Calcium is imperative in maintaining a quality life, particularly during later ages. Its deficiency results in a wide range of metabolic disorders such as dental changes, cataracts, alterations in brain function, and osteoporosis. These deficiencies are more pronounced in females due to increased calcium turnover throughout their life cycle, especially during pregnancy and lactation. Vitamin D perform a central role in the metabolism of calcium. Recent scientific interventions have linked calcium with an array of metabolic disorders in females including hypertension, obesity, premenstrual dysphoric disorder, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), multiple sclerosis, and breast cancer. This review encompasses these female metabolic disorders with special reference to calcium and vitamin D deficiency. This review article aims to present and elaborate on available data regarding the worldwide occurrence of insufficient calcium consumption in females and allied health risks, to provide a basis for formulating strategies and population-level scientific studies to adequately boost calcium intake and position where required.

Keywords: calcium; metabolic disorders; polycystic ovary syndrome; vitamin D deficiency.

FIGURE 1

Vitamin D metabolism; intermediary versions of the vitamin require ultraviolet radiation and metabolism in liver and kidney, latter of which is partially regulated by PTH.

FIGURE 2

A potential calcium absorption technique.

FIGURE 3

How vitamin D (1,25(OH)2D3) modulates the immune system across a range of immune cell lineages. R stands for receptor; VDR is for vitamin D receptor; M stands for macrophage; NK stands for natural killer (Source; Cyprian et al., 2019).

FIGURE 4

Vitamin D deficiency's involvement in the pathophysiology of PCOS (Source; Thomson et al., 2012).