Bioactive Properties, Bioavailability Profiles, and Clinical Evidence of the Potential Benefits of Black Pepper (Piper nigrum) and Red Pepper (Capsicum annum) against Diverse Metabolic Complications

Abstract

The consumption of food-derived products, including the regular intake of pepper, is increasingly evaluated for its potential benefits in protecting against diverse metabolic complications. The current study made use of prominent electronic databases including PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus to retrieve clinical evidence linking the intake of black and red pepper with the amelioration of metabolic complications. The findings summarize evidence supporting the beneficial effects of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), including its active ingredient, piperine, in improving blood lipid profiles, including reducing circulating levels of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides in overweight and obese individuals. The intake of piperine was also linked with enhanced antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties by increasing serum levels of superoxide dismutase while reducing those of malonaldehyde and C-reactive protein in individuals with metabolic syndrome. Evidence summarized in the current review also indicates that red pepper (Capsicum annum), together with its active ingredient, capsaicin, could promote energy expenditure, including limiting energy intake, which is likely to contribute to reduced fat mass in overweight and obese individuals. Emerging clinical evidence also indicates that pepper may be beneficial in alleviating complications linked with other chronic conditions, including osteoarthritis, oropharyngeal dysphagia, digestion, hemodialysis, and neuromuscular fatigue. Notably, the beneficial effects of pepper or its active ingredients appear to be more pronounced when used in combination with other bioactive compounds. The current review also covers essential information on the metabolism and bioavailability profiles of both pepper species and their main active ingredients, which are all necessary to understand their potential beneficial effects against metabolic diseases.

Keywords: capsaicin; capsinoid; inflammation; metabolic disease; oxidative stress; pepper; piperine.

Figure 1

A general overview of metabolic syndrome, representing some of the diverse pathological conditions associated with this abnormal metabolic state, including diabetic neuropathy, type 2 diabetes, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, skeletal muscle dysfunction, and increased risk of heart failure.

Figure 2

The chemical structure of piperine, including its isomers isopiperine, chavivine, and isochavicine; adapted from published literature [34].

Figure 3

The chemical structure of capsaicinoids, including capsaicin, homocapsaicin, homodihydrocapsaicin and N-vanillyl nanoamide. Information adapted from previous literature [63,74].

Figure 4

A general overview of the potential beneficial effects of black pepper against obesity and its associated complications, with evidence indicating that black pepper, including its active ingredient piperine, shows enhanced potential to improve blood lipid profiles, including reducing circulating levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) while increasing those of high-density lipoprotein (HDL). The strong antioxidant properties of black pepper are attributed to its potential beneficial effects on overweight and obese individuals.

Figure 5

The potential beneficial effects of red pepper, including its active ingredient capsaicin, could promote energy expenditure and limit energy intake, which is likely to contribute to reduced fat mass in overweight and obese individuals.