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. 2023 Oct 20;23(20):8597.
doi: 10.3390/s23208597.

An Electrochemical Sensor of Theophylline on a Boron-Doped Diamond Electrode Modified with Nickel Nanoparticles

Prastika Krisma Jiwanti  1 , Anis Puspita Sari  2 , Siti Wafiroh  2 , Yeni Wahyuni Hartati  3 , Jarnuzi Gunlazuardi  4 , Yulia M T A Putri  4 , Takeshi Kondo  5 , Qonita Kurnia Anjani  6
Affiliations

An Electrochemical Sensor of Theophylline on a Boron-Doped Diamond Electrode Modified with Nickel Nanoparticles

Prastika Krisma Jiwanti et al. Sensors (Basel). .

Abstract

Theophylline is a drug with a narrow therapeutic range. Electrochemical sensors are a potentially effective method for detecting theophylline concentration to prevent toxicity. In this work, a simple modification of a boron-doped diamond electrode using nickel nanoparticles was successfully performed for a theophylline electrochemical sensor. The modified electrode was characterized using a scanning electron microscope and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Square wave voltammetry and cyclic voltammetry methods were used to study the electrochemical behavior of theophylline. The modified nickel nanoparticles on the boron-doped diamond electrode exhibited an electrochemically active surface area of 0.0081 cm2, which is larger than the unmodified boron-doped diamond's area of 0.0011 cm2. This modified electrode demonstrated a low limit of detection of 2.79 µM within the linear concentration range from 30 to 100 µM. Moreover, the modified boron-doped diamond electrode also showed selective properties against D-glucose, ammonium sulfate, and urea. In the real sample analysis using artificial urine, the boron-doped diamond electrode with nickel nanoparticle modifications achieved a %recovery of 105.10%, with a good precision of less than 5%. The results of this work indicate that the developed method using nickel nanoparticles on a boron-doped diamond electrode is promising for the determination of theophylline.

Keywords: boron-doped diamond; electrochemical sensing; human health; nickel nanoparticles; theophylline.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
(a) SEM images of BDD/NiNP, (b) XPS spectra of BDD/NiNP (wide scan), (c) C 1s spectra, (d) O 1s spectra, and (e) Ni 2p spectra with baseline (red line).
Figure 2
Figure 2
(a) A plot of the square root of the scan rate vs. peak oxidation current (red dot) with error bar (black line) and (b) CV curves for various scan rates from 40 to 120 mV/s in an aqueous solution of 5.0 mM K3[Fe(CN)6] with 0.1 M KCl using BDD/NiNP.
Figure 3
Figure 3
CV curves of the blank (0.1 M PBS) for the BDD electrode (blue), and CV curves for BDD (red) and BDD/NiNP electrodes (purple) in 60 µM theophylline at a scan rate of 100 mV/s.
Figure 4
Figure 4
SWV curves for determining S/B of 60 μM theophylline in 0.1 M PBS pH 3, (SWV parameters: frequency of 50 Hz, step potential of 50 mV, and amplitude of 50 mV) using (a) BDD and (b) BDD/NiNP electrodes.
Figure 5
Figure 5
CV curve for various scan rates from 40 to 120 mV/s, using (a) BDD and (b) BDD/NiNP electrodes. (c) Linear plot of the oxidation peak current vs. square root of the scan rates in measuring 60 μM theophylline with 0.1 M PBS at pH 3 at various scan rates from 40 to 120 mV/s using BDD (red dot) and BDD/NiNP (blue dot).
Figure 6
Figure 6
The proposed mechanism of theophylline oxidation [28].
Figure 7
Figure 7
Graph of the relationship between pH, potential, and current in 60 μM theophylline measurements with 0.1 M PBS pH 2–9 using (a) BDD and (b) BDD/NiNP, (SWV parameters: frequency of 50 Hz, step potential of 50 mV, and amplitude of 50 mV).
Figure 8
Figure 8
SWV curve using (a) BDD and (b) BDD/NiNP in various concentrations of theophylline from 30 to 100 μM with 0.1 M PBS at pH 3 (SWV parameters: frequency of 50 Hz, step potential of 50 mV, and amplitude of 50 mV). Plot calibration curves between peak current and concentrations in red dot with error bar (black line) using (c) BDD and (d) BDD/NiNP.
Figure 9
Figure 9
SWV curve using (a) BDD and (b) BDD/NiNP in an artificial urine sample spiked with 60 μM theophylline, with 0.1 M PBS at pH 3 (SWV parameters: frequency of 50 Hz, step potential of 50 mV, and amplitude of 50 mV).
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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