Comprehensive Update on Carotenoid Colorants from Plants and Microalgae: Challenges and Advances from Research Laboratories to Industry

Abstract

The substitution of synthetic food dyes with natural colorants continues to be assiduously pursued. The current list of natural carotenoid colorants consists of plant-derived annatto (bixin and norbixin), paprika (capsanthin and capsorubin), saffron (crocin), tomato and gac fruit lycopene, marigold lutein, and red palm oil (α- and β-carotene), along with microalgal Dunaliella β-carotene and Haematococcus astaxanthin and fungal Blakeslea trispora β-carotene and lycopene. Potential microalgal sources are being sought, especially in relation to lutein, for which commercial plant sources are lacking. Research efforts, manifested in numerous reviews and research papers published in the last decade, have been directed to green extraction, microencapsulation/nanoencapsulation, and valorization of processing by-products. Extraction is shifting from conventional extraction with organic solvents to supercritical CO₂ extraction and different types of assisted extraction. Initially intended for the stabilization of the highly degradable carotenoids, additional benefits of encapsulation have been demonstrated, especially the improvement of carotenoid solubility and bioavailability. Instead of searching for new higher plant sources, enormous effort has been directed to the utilization of by-products of the fruit and vegetable processing industry, with the application of biorefinery and circular economy concepts. Amidst enormous research activities, however, the gap between research and industrial implementation remains wide.

Keywords: by-product valorization; green extraction; microalgal carotenoids; microencapsulation; nanoencapsulation; plant-derived colorants; regulation; safety concerns.

Figure 1

Structures of the principal carotenoids of commercial natural carotenoid colorants.

Figure 2

Summary of commercially available natural carotenoid colorants for food use.

Figure 3

Proposed scheme for the valorization of fruit and vegetable processing by-products, incorporating green extraction, biorefinery, circular economy, and xero waste.