Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Review
. 2023 Nov 12;23(22):9130.
doi: 10.3390/s23229130.

Non-Invasive Glucose Sensing Technologies and Products: A Comprehensive Review for Researchers and Clinicians

Daria Di Filippo  1 , Frédérique N Sunstrum  2 , Jawairia U Khan  3 , Alec W Welsh  1   4
Affiliations
Review

Non-Invasive Glucose Sensing Technologies and Products: A Comprehensive Review for Researchers and Clinicians

Daria Di Filippo et al. Sensors (Basel). .

Abstract

Diabetes Mellitus incidence and its negative outcomes have dramatically increased worldwide and are expected to further increase in the future due to a combination of environmental and social factors. Several methods of measuring glucose concentration in various body compartments have been described in the literature over the years. Continuous advances in technology open the road to novel measuring methods and innovative measurement sites. The aim of this comprehensive review is to report all the methods and products for non-invasive glucose measurement described in the literature over the past five years that have been tested on both human subjects/samples and tissue models. A literature review was performed in the MDPI database, with 243 articles reviewed and 124 included in a narrative summary. Different comparisons of techniques focused on the mechanism of action, measurement site, and machine learning application, outlining the main advantages and disadvantages described/expected so far. This review represents a comprehensive guide for clinicians and industrial designers to sum the most recent results in non-invasive glucose sensing techniques' research and production to aid the progress in this promising field.

Keywords: Diabetes Mellitus; continuous; glucose sensing; intermittent; non-invasive; product design and development.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Diabetes Mellitus diagnosis and management. ICA—Islet Cell Autoantibodies, IA-2—Insulinoma-Associated Protein 2, GAD65—Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase 65, ZnT8—Zinc Transporter, CGM—Continuous Glucose Monitoring, SBGM—Self Blood Glucose Monitoring, FBG—Fasting Blood Glucose. Random Blood Glucose cut-off = 11.1 mmol/L, Glycated haemoglobin cutoff = 48 mmol/L.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Classification of non-invasive glucose sensing technique.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Schematic representation of the different skin layers and thicknesses.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) technique. The color codes in the OCT image (i.e., yellow, red, green, etc.) are attributed to the tissues and substances exhibiting different levels of reflectivity or scattering of light.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Optical Polarimetry (OP) sensing: (a) hypothetical continuous wearable optical lens; (b) intermittent prototype of a palm and finger sensor [31].
Figure 6
Figure 6
The presence of glucose within the circulatory system in individuals with (a) hypoglycemia, (b) normal glucose levels, and (c) hyperglycemia.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Photoplethysmography (PPG) technique illustrated as: (a) a continuous proof-of-concept ear device developed by Hammour and Mandic (2023); (b) an intermittent prototype of a finger sensor device NBM-200G (in development by OrSense, Raleigh, NC, USA).
Figure 8
Figure 8
Near Infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy illustrated through three instruments of measurement through the finger: (a) reflectance; (b) interactance; and (c) transmittance. The spectrum of colors is attributed to when light passes through the diffractor, dispersion occurs causing different colors to separate due to varying wavelengths, which is analyzed by the detector.
Figure 9
Figure 9
Near Infrared/Mid Infrared (NIR/MID) Absorbance Spectroscopy.
Figure 10
Figure 10
Terahertz-Time Domain Spectroscopy (Thz-TDS).
Figure 11
Figure 11
Thermal Emission Spectroscopy (TES).
Figure 12
Figure 12
A schematic representation of a finger sensing device using Occlusion Spectroscopy.
Figure 13
Figure 13
Photoacoustic Spectroscopy (PAS) finger sensor illustrating heat waves emitted from glucose molecules.
Figure 14
Figure 14
Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy technique illustrated in an intermittent finger sensor.
Figure 15
Figure 15
Carbon Quantum Dot (CQD) fluorescence tattoo-like sensor patch. CQDs exhibit fluorescence intensity changes in response to different glucose concentrations, allowing for sensitivity detection through spectral shifts and intensity alterations in emitted light.
Figure 16
Figure 16
Raman Spectroscopy: illustration of intermittent device sensor.
Figure 17
Figure 17
Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) technique illustrated in an intermittent finger sensor. The glucose affects the surface plasmon resonance causing shifts in the resonance angle and intensity of reflected light where the light wavelength is represented through color.
Figure 18
Figure 18
Bio-Impedance Spectroscopy technique illustrated in a continuous watch sensor.
Figure 19
Figure 19
Glucose sensing production.
Figure 20
Figure 20
(a) Continuous glucose sensing product site. (b) Intermittent glucose sensing product site.
Figure 20
Figure 20
(a) Continuous glucose sensing product site. (b) Intermittent glucose sensing product site.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

    1. WHO Diabetes. 2023. [(accessed on 1 August 2023)]. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes.
    1. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare . Diabetes: Australian Facts. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare; Canberra, Australia: 2023.
    1. WHO The Top 10 Causes of Death. 2020. [(accessed on 1 August 2023)]. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death.
    1. Saeedi P., Petersohn I., Salpea P., Malanda B., Karuranga S., Unwin N., Colagiuri S., Guariguata L., Motala A.A., Ogurtsova K., et al. Global and regional diabetes prevalence estimates for 2019 and projections for 2030 and 2045: Results from the International Diabetes Federation Diabetes Atlas, 9(th) edition. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2019;157:107843. doi: 10.1016/j.diabres.2019.107843. - DOI - PubMed
    1. Bogdanet D., O’shea P., Lyons C., Shafat A., Dunne F. The Oral Glucose Tolerance Test-Is It Time for a Change?—A Literature Review with an Emphasis on Pregnancy. J. Clin. Med. 2020;9:3451. doi: 10.3390/jcm9113451. - DOI - PMC - PubMed