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. 2023 Dec 6;12(12):CD008145.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD008145.pub4.

Interventions for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low- and middle-income countries

Angela Oyo-Ita  1 , Olabisi Oduwole  2 , Dachi Arikpo  3 , Emmanuel E Effa  4 , Ekpereonne B Esu  5 , Yusentha Balakrishna  6 , Moriam T Chibuzor  3 , Chioma M Oringanje  7 , Chukwuemeka E Nwachukwu  8 , Charles S Wiysonge  9   10 , Martin M Meremikwu  11
Affiliations

Interventions for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low- and middle-income countries

Angela Oyo-Ita et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Immunisation plays a major role in reducing childhood morbidity and mortality. Getting children immunised against potentially fatal and debilitating vaccine-preventable diseases remains a challenge despite the availability of efficacious vaccines, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. With the introduction of new vaccines, this becomes increasingly difficult. There is therefore a current need to synthesise the available evidence on the strategies used to bridge this gap. This is a second update of the Cochrane Review first published in 2011 and updated in 2016, and it focuses on interventions for improving childhood immunisation coverage in low- and middle-income countries.

Objectives: To evaluate the effectiveness of intervention strategies to boost demand and supply of childhood vaccines, and sustain high childhood immunisation coverage in low- and middle-income countries.

Search methods: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, CINAHL, and Global Index Medicus (11 July 2022). We searched Embase, LILACS, and Sociological Abstracts (2 September 2014). We searched WHO ICTRP and ClinicalTrials.gov (11 July 2022). In addition, we screened reference lists of relevant systematic reviews for potentially eligible studies, and carried out a citation search for 14 of the included studies (19 February 2020).

Selection criteria: Eligible studies were randomised controlled trials (RCTs), non-randomised RCTs (nRCTs), controlled before-after studies, and interrupted time series conducted in low- and middle-income countries involving children that were under five years of age, caregivers, and healthcare providers.

Data collection and analysis: We independently screened the search output, reviewed full texts of potentially eligible articles, assessed the risk of bias, and extracted data in duplicate, resolving discrepancies by consensus. We conducted random-effects meta-analyses and used GRADE to assess the certainty of the evidence.

Main results: Forty-one studies involving 100,747 participants are included in the review. Twenty studies were cluster-randomised and 15 studies were individually randomised controlled trials. Six studies were quasi-randomised. The studies were conducted in four upper-middle-income countries (China, Georgia, Mexico, Guatemala), 11 lower-middle-income countries (Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Nigeria, Nepal, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Zimbabwe), and three lower-income countries (Afghanistan, Mali, Rwanda). The interventions evaluated in the studies were health education (seven studies), patient reminders (13 studies), digital register (two studies), household incentives (three studies), regular immunisation outreach sessions (two studies), home visits (one study), supportive supervision (two studies), integration of immunisation services with intermittent preventive treatment of malaria (one study), payment for performance (two studies), engagement of community leaders (one study), training on interpersonal communication skills (one study), and logistic support to health facilities (one study). We judged nine of the included studies to have low risk of bias; the risk of bias in eight studies was unclear and 24 studies had high risk of bias. We found low-certainty evidence that health education (risk ratio (RR) 1.36, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.15 to 1.62; 6 studies, 4375 participants) and home-based records (RR 1.36, 95% CI 1.06 to 1.75; 3 studies, 4019 participants) may improve coverage with DTP3/Penta 3 vaccine. Phone calls/short messages may have little or no effect on DTP3/Penta 3 vaccine uptake (RR 1.12, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.25; 6 studies, 3869 participants; low-certainty evidence); wearable reminders probably have little or no effect on DTP3/Penta 3 uptake (RR 1.02, 95% CI 0.97 to 1.07; 2 studies, 1567 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). Use of community leaders in combination with provider intervention probably increases the uptake of DTP3/Penta 3 vaccine (RR 1.37, 95% CI 1.11 to 1.69; 1 study, 2020 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). We are uncertain about the effect of immunisation outreach on DTP3/Penta 3 vaccine uptake in children under two years of age (RR 1.32, 95% CI 1.11 to 1.56; 1 study, 541 participants; very low-certainty evidence). We are also uncertain about the following interventions improving full vaccination of children under two years of age: training of health providers on interpersonal communication skills (RR 5.65, 95% CI 3.62 to 8.83; 1 study, 420 participants; very low-certainty evidence), and home visits (RR 1.29, 95% CI 1.15 to 1.45; 1 study, 419 participants; very low-certainty evidence). The same applies to the effect of training of health providers on interpersonal communication skills on the uptake of DTP3/Penta 3 by one year of age (very low-certainty evidence). The integration of immunisation with other services may, however, improve full vaccination (RR 1.29, 95% CI 1.16 to 1.44; 1 study, 1700 participants; low-certainty evidence).

Authors' conclusions: Health education, home-based records, a combination of involvement of community leaders with health provider intervention, and integration of immunisation services may improve vaccine uptake. The certainty of the evidence for the included interventions ranged from moderate to very low. Low certainty of the evidence implies that the true effect of the interventions might be markedly different from the estimated effect. Further, more rigorous RCTs are, therefore, required to generate high-certainty evidence to inform policy and practice.

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Conflict of interest statement

Angela Oyo‐Ita: is an author of one of the included studies (Oyo‐Ita 2021). She did not perform data extraction, risk of bias, or GRADE assessment for that study.

Olabisi Oduwole: is an author of one of the included studies (Oyo‐Ita 2021). She did not perform data extraction, risk of bias, or GRADE assessment for that study.

Dachi Arikpo: is an author of one of the included studies (Oyo‐Ita 2021). She did not perform data extraction, risk of bias, or GRADE assessment for that study.

Ekpereonne Esu: is an author of one of the included studies (Oyo‐Ita 2021). He did not perform data extraction, risk of bias, or GRADE assessment for that study.

Moriam Chibuzor: none known.

Emmanuel Effa: is a Cochrane Editor but was not involved in the editorial process for this review.

Yusenthua Balakrishna: none known.

Charles S Wiysonge: none known.

Chioma M Oringanje: none known.

Chukwuemeka E Nwachukwu: none known.

Martin M Meremikwu: is an author of one of the included studies (Oyo‐Ita 2021). He did not perform data extraction, risk of bias, or GRADE assessment for that study.

Figures

1
1
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each methodological quality item for each included study.
2
2
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each methodological quality item presented as percentages across all included studies.
3
3
Study flow diagram.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1: Health education, Outcome 1: Reception of DTP3 by 1 year of age
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1: Health education, Outcome 2: Uptake of BCG vaccine
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1: Health education, Outcome 3: Uptake of OPV3 vaccine
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1: Health education, Outcome 4: Uptake of HBV3 vaccine
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1: Health education, Outcome 5: Uptake of BCG + DTP3 + OPV vaccines
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1: Health education, Outcome 6: Uptake of measles vaccine
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1: Health education, Outcome 7: Uptake of at least 1 vaccine
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1: Health education, Outcome 8: Reception of all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2: Monetary incentive, Outcome 1: Uptake of BCG vaccine
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2: Monetary incentive, Outcome 2: Uptake of measles/MMR vaccine
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2: Monetary incentive, Outcome 3: Under 5 years of age fully immunised with all scheduled vaccine
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3: Home‐based record, Outcome 1: Uptake of DTP3 vaccine
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4: Digital register, Outcome 1: Uptake of DTP3 vaccine
4.2
4.2. Analysis
Comparison 4: Digital register, Outcome 2: Reception of all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age
4.3
4.3. Analysis
Comparison 4: Digital register, Outcome 3: Uptake of BCG vaccine
4.4
4.4. Analysis
Comparison 4: Digital register, Outcome 4: Uptake of OPV3 vaccine
4.5
4.5. Analysis
Comparison 4: Digital register, Outcome 5: Uptake of HBV3 vaccine
4.6
4.6. Analysis
Comparison 4: Digital register, Outcome 6: Uptake of measles vaccine
5.1
5.1. Analysis
Comparison 5: Phone call/SMS, Outcome 1: Reception of DTP3/Penta 3 by 2 years of age
5.2
5.2. Analysis
Comparison 5: Phone call/SMS, Outcome 2: Uptake of DTP3 (SMS + monetary incentive intervention)
5.3
5.3. Analysis
Comparison 5: Phone call/SMS, Outcome 3: Reception of all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age
5.4
5.4. Analysis
Comparison 5: Phone call/SMS, Outcome 4: Uptake of BCG vaccine
5.5
5.5. Analysis
Comparison 5: Phone call/SMS, Outcome 5: Uptake of OPV3 vaccine
5.6
5.6. Analysis
Comparison 5: Phone call/SMS, Outcome 6: Uptake of measles vaccine
5.7
5.7. Analysis
Comparison 5: Phone call/SMS, Outcome 7: Uptake of yellow fever vaccine
6.1
6.1. Analysis
Comparison 6: Wearable reminder, Outcome 1: Reception of DTP3/Penta 3 vaccine by 2 years of age
6.2
6.2. Analysis
Comparison 6: Wearable reminder, Outcome 2: Uptake of BCG vaccine
6.3
6.3. Analysis
Comparison 6: Wearable reminder, Outcome 3: Uptake of measles vaccine
7.1
7.1. Analysis
Comparison 7: Training of health providers ‐ IPC, Outcome 1: Uptake of all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age
8.1
8.1. Analysis
Comparison 8: Home visit, Outcome 1: Uptake of all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age
8.2
8.2. Analysis
Comparison 8: Home visit, Outcome 2: Uptake of OPV3 vaccine
8.3
8.3. Analysis
Comparison 8: Home visit, Outcome 3: Uptake of measles vaccine
9.1
9.1. Analysis
Comparison 9: Immunisation outreach, Outcome 1: Reception of DTP3 by 1 year of age
9.2
9.2. Analysis
Comparison 9: Immunisation outreach, Outcome 2: Uptake of all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age
9.3
9.3. Analysis
Comparison 9: Immunisation outreach, Outcome 3: Uptake of BCG vaccine
9.4
9.4. Analysis
Comparison 9: Immunisation outreach, Outcome 4: Uptake of HBV3 vaccine
9.5
9.5. Analysis
Comparison 9: Immunisation outreach, Outcome 5: Uptake of OPV3 vaccine
9.6
9.6. Analysis
Comparison 9: Immunisation outreach, Outcome 6: Uptake of measles vaccine
9.7
9.7. Analysis
Comparison 9: Immunisation outreach, Outcome 7: Under 5 years of age fully immunised with all scheduled vaccines
10.1
10.1. Analysis
Comparison 10: Integration of immunisation with other health services, Outcome 1: Reception of DTP3/Penta 3 by 1 year of age
10.2
10.2. Analysis
Comparison 10: Integration of immunisation with other health services, Outcome 2: Uptake of all recommended vaccines by 2 years of age
10.3
10.3. Analysis
Comparison 10: Integration of immunisation with other health services, Outcome 3: Uptake of BCG vaccine
10.4
10.4. Analysis
Comparison 10: Integration of immunisation with other health services, Outcome 4: Uptake of measles vaccine
10.5
10.5. Analysis
Comparison 10: Integration of immunisation with other health services, Outcome 5: Uptake of yellow fever vaccine
11.1
11.1. Analysis
Comparison 11: Engagement of community leaders, Outcome 1: Reception of DTP3/Penta 3 vaccine by 1 year of age
11.2
11.2. Analysis
Comparison 11: Engagement of community leaders, Outcome 2: Uptake of measles vaccine
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

References

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Briere 2012 {published data only}
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Buser 2021 {published data only}
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Dominguez Ugá 1988 {published data only}
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Dougherty 2020 {published data only}
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Edmond 2020 {published data only}
    1. Edmond K, Yousufi K, Naziri M, Higgins-Steele A, Qadir AQ, Sadat SM, et al. Mobile outreach health services for mothers and children in conflict-affectedand remote areas: a population-based study from Afghanistan. Archives of Disease in Childhood 2020;105:18-25. - PubMed
Ekunwe 1984 {published data only}
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Gokcay 1993 {published data only}
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Hong 2005 {published data only}
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Hu 2018 {published data only}
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Igarashi 2010 {published data only}
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Johri 2015a {published data only}
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Johri 2020 {published data only}
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Kaewkungwal 2015 {published data only}
    1. Kaewkungwal J, Apidechkul T, Jandee K, Khamsiriwatchara A, Lawpoolsri S, Sawang S, et al. Application of mobile technology for improving expanded program on immunization among highland minority and stateless populations in northern Thailand border. JMIR MHealth and UHealth 2015;3(1):e4. - PMC - PubMed
Kazi 2017 {published data only}
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Kuhn 1990 {published data only}
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Kuppuswamy 2016 {published data only}
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Lechtig 1981 {published data only}
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Lin 1971 {published data only}
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Linkins 1995 {published data only}
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Maher 1993 {published data only}
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Main 2001 {published data only}
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Manyazewal 2018 {published data only}
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Marshall 2007 {published data only}
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Robinson 2001 {published data only}
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References to studies awaiting assessment

Chandir 2022 {published data only}
    1. Chandir S, Siddiqi DA, Abdullah S, Duflo E, Khan AJ, Glennerster R. Small mobile conditional cash transfers (mCCTs) of different amounts, schedules and design to improve routine childhood immunization coverage andtimeliness of children aged 0-23 months in Pakistan: an open label multi-arm randomized controlled trial. EClinicalMedicine 2022;50:101500. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101500] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Ibraheem 2021 {published data only}
    1. Ibraheem R, Akintola M, Abdulkadir M, Ameen H, Bolarinwa O, Adeboye M. Effects of call reminders, short message services (SMS) reminders,and SMS immunization facts on childhood routine vaccination timingand completion in Ilorin, Nigeria. African Health Sciences 2021;21(2):951-9. - PMC - PubMed
Mekonnen 2021 {published data only}
    1. Mekonnen ZA, Gelaye KA, Were M, Tilahun B. Effect of mobile phone text message reminders on the completion and timely receipt of routine childhood vaccinations: superiority randomized controlled trial in Northwest Ethiopia. JMIR mHealth and uHealth 2021;9(6):e27603. - PMC - PubMed
Oyo‐Ita 2021b {published data only}
    1. Oyo-Ita AE, Hanlon P, Nwankwo O, Bosch-Capblanch X, Aripko D, Esu E, et al. Cost-effectiveness analysis of an intervention project engaging traditional and religious leaders to improve uptake of childhood immunization in Southern Nigeria. PLOS One 2021;16(9):e0257277. - PMC - PubMed

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