Arbovirus surveillance in mosquitoes: Historical methods, emerging technologies, and challenges ahead

Abstract

Arboviruses cause millions of infections each year; however, only limited options are available for treatment and pharmacological prevention. Mosquitoes are among the most important vectors for the transmission of several pathogens to humans. Despite advances, the sampling, viral detection, and control methods for these insects remain ineffective. Challenges arise with the increase in mosquito populations due to climate change, insecticide resistance, and human interference affecting natural habitats, which contribute to the increasing difficulty in controlling the spread of arboviruses. Therefore, prioritizing arbovirus surveillance is essential for effective epidemic preparedness. In this review, we offer a concise historical account of the discovery and monitoring of arboviruses in mosquitoes, from mosquito capture to viral detection. We then analyzed the advantages and limitations of these traditional methods. Furthermore, we investigated the potential of emerging technologies to address these limitations, including the implementation of next-generation sequencing, paper-based devices, spectroscopic detectors, and synthetic biosensors. We also provide perspectives on recurring issues and areas of interest such as insect-specific viruses.

Keywords: Insect-specific viruses; NGS; arbovirus; molecular methods; mosquito; surveillance.

Figure 1.

Overview of arbovirus wild and urban cycles and evolving detection technologies. (1) Wild mosquito cycle; (2) urban mosquito cycle; (3) mosquito pool sample after ultracentrifugation; and (4) evolution of technologies: (a) animal inoculation; (b) cell culture inoculation; (c) use of Whatman paper for sample collection and transportation; (d) polymerase chain reaction (PCR); (e) real-time PCR; and (f) third-generation sequencing using Nanopore’s portable MinION sequencer, with details on nucleotide sequence acquisition followed by viruses characterization through phylogenetic analysis.

Figure 2.

Cycle of entomological surveillance for arbovirus control.