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Review
. 2024 Jan 4;13(1):282.
doi: 10.3390/jcm13010282.

Functional Near-Infrared Spectrometry as a Useful Diagnostic Tool for Understanding the Visual System: A Review

Kelly Acuña  1 , Rishav Sapahia  2 , Irene Newman Jiménez  3 , Michael Antonietti  2 , Ignacio Anzola  2 , Marvin Cruz  2 , Michael T García  2 , Varun Krishnan  2 , Lynn A Leveille  2 , Miklós D Resch  4 , Anat Galor  2 , Ranya Habash  2 , Delia Cabrera DeBuc  2
Affiliations
Review

Functional Near-Infrared Spectrometry as a Useful Diagnostic Tool for Understanding the Visual System: A Review

Kelly Acuña et al. J Clin Med. .

Abstract

This comprehensive review explores the role of Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) in advancing our understanding of the visual system. Beginning with an introduction to fNIRS, we delve into its historical development, highlighting how this technology has evolved over time. The core of the review critically examines the advantages and disadvantages of fNIRS, offering a balanced view of its capabilities and limitations in research and clinical settings. We extend our discussion to the diverse applications of fNIRS beyond its traditional use, emphasizing its versatility across various fields. In the context of the visual system, this review provides an in-depth analysis of how fNIRS contributes to our understanding of eye function, including eye diseases. We discuss the intricacies of the visual cortex, how it responds to visual stimuli and the implications of these findings in both health and disease. A unique aspect of this review is the exploration of the intersection between fNIRS, virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR) and artificial intelligence (AI). We discuss how these cutting-edge technologies are synergizing with fNIRS to open new frontiers in visual system research. The review concludes with a forward-looking perspective, envisioning the future of fNIRS in a rapidly evolving technological landscape and its potential to revolutionize our approach to studying and understanding the visual system.

Keywords: artificial intelligence; augmented reality; brain–computer interfaces; eye; fNIRS; neuroimaging; optical imaging; virtual reality; visual system; visual systems.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Schematic diagram of the fNIRS system. NIR light is generated and guided to the human’s head by optic fibers, and another fiber bundle diffusively reflects light from the head to detectors [10].
Figure 2
Figure 2
Sketch of the development of fNIRS instrumentation from 1992 (single channel with a low temporal resolution and poor sensitivity) up to multi-channel systems [13].
Figure 3
Figure 3
(Left): Side view of the Kernel Flow device (Kernel Inc. (Los Angeles, CA, USA)) for noninvasive optical brain imaging. (Right): Outer and inner views of the Kernel Flow headset [12,15] demonstrating the wearable form.
Figure 4
Figure 4
A 3D view of the fNIRS optode arrangement used in fNIRS-based BCIs integrated with AR technology [39]. The nine sources (S1–S9, red dots), eight detectors (D1–D8, blue dots) are placed over the left-hemispheric motor and premotor regions.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Images reconstructed from fMRI data from one subject: top row shows presented images, bottom row shows obtained images [45].
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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