Anthraquinone as emerging contaminant: technological, toxicological, regulatory and analytical aspects

Abstract

Anthraquinone (anthracene-9,10-dione) is a multifaceted chemical used in the paper industry, in the production of synthetic dyes, in crop protection against birds and is released from fossil fuels. Additionally, the anthraquinone scaffold, when substituted with sugars and hydroxyl groups is found in plants as metabolites. Because of these multiple applications, it is produced on a large scale worldwide. However, its toxicological aspects have gained interest, due to the low limits in the foods defined by legislation. Worrying levels of anthracene-9,10-dione have been detected in wastewater, atmospheric air, soil, food packaging and more recently, in actual foodstuffs. Recent investigations aiming to identify the anthracene-9,10-dione contamination sources in teas highlighted the packaging, leaves processing, anthracene metabolism, reactions between tea constituents and deposition from the environment. In this context, this review seeks to highlight the uses, sources, biological effects, analytical and regulatory aspects of anthracene-9,10-dione.

Keywords: Anthraquinone; Contaminant; Oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; Toxicity; anthracene-9,10-dione.

Fig. 1

Structure of anthracene-9,10-dione and natural anthraquinones found in plants, drugs and dyes

Fig. 2

Industrial methods of anthracene-9,10-dione production

Fig. 3

Anthracene-9,10-dione hepatic metabolism