Effects of Red ginseng on neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases

Abstract

Red ginseng (RG) is widely used as a herbal medicine. As the human lifespan has increased, numerous diseases have developed, and RG has also been used to treat various diseases. Neurodegenerative diseases are major problems that modern people face through their lives. Neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis are featured by progressive nerve system damage. Recently, neuroinflammation has emerged as a degenerative factor and is an immune response in which cytokines with nerve cells that constitute the nervous system. RG, a natural herbal medicine with fewer side effects than chemically synthesized drugs, is currently in the spotlight. Therefore, we reviewed studies reporting the roles of RG in treating neuroinflammation and neurodegenerative diseases and found that RG might help alleviate neurodegenerative diseases by regulating neuroinflammation.

Keywords: Parkinson's disease; Red ginseng; alzheimer's disease; neurodegenerative diseases; neuroinflammation.

Graphical abstract

Fig. 1

Ginsenoside Panaxadiol The chemical structures of ginsenoside panaxadiol components (Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Rg3, Rh2, Rs1, Rg5) are shown glc: β-D-glucopyranosyl, R2: glc-glc-O, arap: α-L-arabinopyranosyl, araf: α-L-arabinofuranosyl, GlcO: glc-O.

Fig. 2

Ginsenoside Panaxatriol Indicate the chemical structure of Ginsenoside (Re, Rf, Rg1, Rg2, Rh1). glc: β-D-glucopyranosyl, R2: glc-glc-O, rha, α-L-rhamncpyranosyl

Fig. 3

Ginsenoside Oleanolic acid The figure shows the chemical structure of the ginsenoside oleanolic acid component (Ro).

Fig. 4

Changes in the chemical structure of ginsenoside during steaming The figure shows the process in which Rg3 and Rg5, unique compounds of red ginseng, are produced during the steaming process. The chemical structure of Ginsenoside Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd is converted to Rg3, and Rg3 to Rg5. glc: β-D-glucopyranosyl, R2: glc-glc-O, arap: α-L-arabinopyranosyl, araf: α-L-arabinofuranosyl.

Fig. 5

Effects of Red ginseng on neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease Red ginseng suppresses the expression of inflammatory cytokines by inhibiting NF-κB transcription in microglia activation and reducing amyloid precursor protein, amyloid-β, and the phosphorylation of Tau protein. In contrast, red ginseng exerts an anti-neuroinflammatory effect by increasing anti-inflammatory cytokines secretion.

Fig. 6

Effects of Red ginseng on neuroinflammation in Parkinson's disease Red ginseng inhibits NF-κΒ activation of microglia and prevents α-synuclein formation and aggregation, thereby lowering cytokines levels. Moreover, Red ginseng exerts an anti-inflammatory effect by decreasing nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2 levels, promoting dopamine release, and protecting dopaminergic neurons.

Fig. 7

Effects of Red ginseng on neuroinflammation in Huntington's disease Red ginseng inhibits the formation and aggregation of mHTT and downregulates the activation of NF-κB in neurons and microglia. By suppressing the activation of microglia, red ginseng decreases inflammatory cytokines and factors, thereby alleviating neuroinflammation and Huntington's disease symptoms.