Optical neuroimaging and neurostimulation in surgical training and assessment: A state-of-the-art review

Abstract

Introduction: Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a non-invasive optical neuroimaging technique used to assess surgeons' brain function. The aim of this narrative review is to outline the effect of expertise, stress, surgical technology, and neurostimulation on surgeons' neural activation patterns, and highlight key progress areas required in surgical neuroergonomics to modulate training and performance.

Methods: A literature search of PubMed and Embase was conducted to identify neuroimaging studies using fNIRS and neurostimulation in surgeons performing simulated tasks.

Results: Novice surgeons exhibit greater haemodynamic responses across the pre-frontal cortex than experts during simple surgical tasks, whilst expert surgical performance is characterized by relative prefrontal attenuation and upregulation of activation foci across other regions such as the supplementary motor area. The association between PFC activation and mental workload follows an inverted-U shaped curve, activation increasing then attenuating past a critical inflection point at which demands outstrip cognitive capacity Neuroimages are sensitive to the impact of laparoscopic and robotic tools on cognitive workload, helping inform the development of training programs which target neural learning curves. FNIRS differs in comparison to current tools to assess proficiency by depicting a cognitive state during surgery, enabling the development of cognitive benchmarks of expertise. Finally, neurostimulation using transcranial direct-current-stimulation may accelerate skill acquisition and enhance technical performance.

Conclusion: FNIRS can inform the development of surgical training programs which modulate stress responses, cognitive learning curves, and motor skill performance. Improved data processing with machine learning offers the possibility of live feedback regarding surgeons' cognitive states during operative procedures.

Keywords: functional near-infrared spectroscopy; neuroergonomic; neuroimaging; neuromonitoring; neurostimulation; surgical training.

Figure 1

(A) Optical neuroimaging cap (B) long and short fNIRS detector channels. Short detector channels measure confounding extracerebral signal whilst long channels measure extracerebral and cerebral signals.