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. 2023 Dec 28;12(1):59.
doi: 10.3390/microorganisms12010059.

Gulls in Porto Coastline as Reservoirs for Salmonella spp.: Findings from 2008 and 2023

Inês C Rodrigues  1   2 , Ana Paula Cristal  1 , Marisa Ribeiro-Almeida  1   3 , Leonor Silveira  4 , Joana C Prata  1   5 , Roméo Simões  1 , Paulo Vaz-Pires  1   2 , Ângela Pista  4 , Paulo Martins da Costa  1   2
Affiliations

Gulls in Porto Coastline as Reservoirs for Salmonella spp.: Findings from 2008 and 2023

Inês C Rodrigues et al. Microorganisms. .

Abstract

Gulls act as intermediaries in the exchange of microorganisms between the environment and human settlements, including Salmonella spp. This study assessed the antimicrobial resistance and molecular profiles of Salmonella spp. isolates obtained from fecal samples of gulls in the city of Porto, Portugal, in 2008 and 2023 and from water samples in 2023. Antimicrobial susceptibility profiling revealed an improvement in the prevalence (71% to 17%) and antimicrobial resistance between the two collection dates. Two isolate collections from both 2008 and 2023 underwent serotyping and whole-genome sequencing, revealing genotypic changes, including an increased frequency in the monophasic variant of S. Typhimurium. qacE was identified in 2008 and 2023 in both water and fecal samples, with most isolates exhibiting an MDR profile. The most frequently observed plasmid types were IncF in 2008 (23%), while IncQ1 predominated in 2023 (43%). Findings suggest that Salmonella spp. circulate between humans, animals, and the environment. However, the genetic heterogeneity among the isolates from the gulls' feces and the surface water may indicate a complex ecological and evolutionary dynamic shaped by changing conditions. The observed improvements are likely due to measures to reduce biological contamination and antimicrobial resistance. Nevertheless, additional strategies must be implemented to reduce the public health risk modeled by the dissemination of pathogens by gulls.

Keywords: Laurus spp.; Salmonella spp.; antimicrobial resistance; gulls; multidrug-resistant bacteria; seagulls; serotyping; whole-genome sequencing.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Figure A1
Figure A1
Use of antibiotics in human medicine in Portugal from 2012 to 2021: community use (A) and hospital use (B) [39].
Figure A1
Figure A1
Use of antibiotics in human medicine in Portugal from 2012 to 2021: community use (A) and hospital use (B) [39].
Figure A2
Figure A2
Use of antibiotics (tetracycline, penicillin, aminoglycosides, sulfonamides) in veterinary medicine in Portugal from 2010 to 2021 [40].
Figure 1
Figure 1
Map of the sample collection points, where (1) represents Matosinhos beach and (2) Largo António Calém, in Porto, Portugal. Map created using the Free and Open Source QGIS.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Antimicrobial susceptibility of isolates from gulls’ feces (F 2008 and F 2023) and water samples from the Douro River (W 2023). Aminoglycosides: gentamycin (GEN), streptomycin (STR), tobramycin (TOB). Cephalosporins: cefazoline (CFZ). Miscellaneous: chloramphenicol (CHL). Penicillin: ampicillin (AMP). Sulfonamides: sulfamethoxazole–trimethoprim (SXT). Tetracycline: tetracycline (TET), doxycycline (DOX).
Figure 3
Figure 3
Comparative GrapeTree analysis of the 2008 and 2023 Salmonella isolates recovered from gulls’ feces. The core genome minimum spanning tree was created within the EnteroBase pipeline using the NINJA NJ algorithm and GrapeTree tool, comprising a total of 3002 target loci of Salmonella. The scale bar corresponds to the number of cgMLST allelic differences. Clusters are marked with red circles.
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