Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Review
. 2024;83(1):2-16.
doi: 10.1159/000531588. Epub 2024 Jan 25.

Depression in Women: Potential Biological and Sociocultural Factors Driving the Sex Effect

Maria Grazia Di Benedetto  1   2 , Paola Landi  3 , Claudio Mencacci  3 , Annamaria Cattaneo  4   5
Affiliations
Review

Depression in Women: Potential Biological and Sociocultural Factors Driving the Sex Effect

Maria Grazia Di Benedetto et al. Neuropsychobiology. 2024.

Abstract

Important sex-related differences have been observed in the onset, prevalence, and clinical phenotype of depression, based on several epidemiological studies. Social, behavioural, and educational factors have a great role in underlying this bias; however, also several biological factors are extensively involved. Indeed, sexually dimorphic biological systems might represent the underlying ground for these disparities, including cerebral structures and neural correlates, reproductive hormones, stress response pathways, the immune system and inflammatory reaction, metabolism, and fat distribution. Furthermore, in this perspective, it is also important to consider and focus the attention on specific ages and life stages of individuals: indeed, women experience during their life specific periods of reproductive transitional phases, which are not found in men, that represent windows of particular psychological vulnerability. In addition to these, other biologically related risk factors, including the occurrence of sleep disturbances and the exposure to childhood trauma, which are found to differentially affect men and women, are also putative underlying mechanisms of the clinical bias of depression. Overall, by taking into account major differences which characterize men and women it might be possible to improve the diagnostic process, as well as treat more efficiently depressed individuals, based on a more personalized medicine and research.

Keywords: Depression in women; Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis; Immune system; Sexual dimorphism; Steroid reproductive hormones.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Figures

Fig. 1.
Fig. 1.
Pituitary and ovarian hormonal fluctuations and endometrial phases of the menstrual cycle.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2.
Biological systems and risk factors potentially involved in the different prevalence and clinical phenotype of depression in women, compared to men.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

    1. Bromet E, Andrade LH, Hwang I, Sampson NA, Alonso J, de Girolamo G, et al. . Cross-national epidemiology of DSM-IV major depressive episode. BMC Med. 2011;9(1):90. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Marcus SM, Kerber KB, Rush AJ, Wisniewski SR, Nierenberg A, Balasubramani GK, et al. . Sex differences in depression symptoms in treatment-seeking adults: confirmatory analyses from the Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression study. Compr Psychiatry. 2008;49(3):238–46. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Kornstein SG, Sloan DME, Thase ME. Gender-specific differences in depression and treatment response. Psychopharmacol Bull. 2002;36(4):99–112. - PubMed
    1. Weissman MM, Bland RC, Canino GJ, Greenwald S, Hwu HG, Joyce PR, et al. . Prevalence of suicide ideation and suicide attempts in nine countries. Psychol Med. 1999;29(1):9–17. - PubMed
    1. Parker G, Fletcher K, Paterson A, Anderson J, Hong M. Gender differences in depression severity and symptoms across depressive sub-types. J Affect Disord. 2014;167:351–7. - PubMed