The cost of monitoring in time-based prospective memory

Abstract

Time-based prospective memory (TBPM) involves remembering to perform actions at specific times in the future. Several studies suggest that monetary consequences improve prospective remembering; however, the effect of monetary consequences on strategic time monitoring (i.e., clock-checking behaviour) in TBPM is still unknown. The present study investigated how the monetary costs on clock-checking affected TBPM accuracy and strategic time monitoring. Participants performed an ongoing lexical decision task while carrying out a TBPM task every two minutes. Motivational incentives were manipulated across three experimental conditions: a single-cost condition in which missed TBPM responses led to monetary deductions, a double-cost condition in which both missed responses and time monitoring led to monetary deductions, and a control condition with no monetary deductions. Overall, the findings indicated that monetary costs on clock-checking prompted more parsimonious strategic time monitoring behaviour, which negatively impacted TBPM accuracy. These results emphasize the importance of weighing the motivational aspects involved in strategic monitoring, shedding light on the complex relationship between clock-checking behaviour, its consequences, and TBPM performance.

Figure 1

Cognitive-motivational interplay as a function of experimental conditions. TBPM time-based prospective memory. The figure represents how goal hierarchy (low-, mid-, and high-level) affects behavioral performance (clock checks and accuracy) and motivational tendencies (earn money and avoid costs) in a time-based prospective memory task across experimental conditions (control, single-, and double-loss condition). Arrows indicate direct downstream effects of experimental conditions (i.e., single- and double-cost) on goal hierarchy and TBPM performance (as both clock-checking and accuracy). In all conditions, participants aimed to earn money (i.e., the high-level goal). In the control condition, the high-level goal didn't impact directly the low-level goal of performing the prospective memory task accurately, because such behavioral performance was not tied to any external incentives. In the single-cost condition, the opportunity to earn extra payment through better performance (i.e., avoiding loss of points later converted in money) added a mid-level motivation that was selectively related to the accuracy in the TBPM task; in the double-cost condition, clock checks were also penalized with a monetary loss, adding further motivation to avoid losses.

Figure 2

Main results from ANOVAs. The figure shows accuracy in the time-based prospective memory task (A), the mean frequency of clock checks over time (B), as well as absolute (C) and relative clock-checking (as a percentage; D) as a function of the experimental conditions (control, single-cost, double-cost). Error bars indicate standard error of the mean. TBPM time-based prospective memory, t1 time 1 (i.e., first 30 s interval before the PM target time), t2 time 2 (i.e., second 30 s interval before the PM target time), t3 time 3 (i.e., third 30 s interval before the PM target time), t4 time 4 (i.e., fourth and last 30 s interval before the PM target time). *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

Figure 3

Results from multi-group path analysis. A graphical representation of the model tested in the path analysis, with regression and covariance coefficients for each experimental condition (monetary loss: control, single-loss, double-loss). TBPM time-based prospective memory, clock-c. clock-checking. **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.