Male Reproductive Toxicity of Antifouling Chemicals: Insights into Oxidative Stress-Induced Infertility and Molecular Mechanisms of Zinc Pyrithione (ZPT)

Abstract

Zinc pyrithione (ZPT), a widely utilized industrial chemical, is recognized for its versatile properties, including antimicrobial, antibacterial, antifungal, and antifouling activities. Despite its widespread use, recent research has shed light on its toxicity, particularly towards the male reproductive system. While investigations into ZPT's impact on male reproduction have been conducted, most of the attention has been directed towards marine organisms. Notably, ZPT has been identified as a catalyst for oxidative stress, contributing to various indicators of male infertility, such as a reduced sperm count, impaired sperm motility, diminished testosterone levels, apoptosis, and degenerative changes in the testicular tissue. Furthermore, discussions surrounding ZPT's effects on DNA and cellular structures have emerged. Despite the abundance of information regarding reproductive toxicity, the molecular mechanisms underlying ZPT's detrimental effects on the male reproductive system remain poorly understood. This review focuses specifically on ZPT, delving into its reported toxicity on male reproduction, while also addressing the broader context by discussing other antifouling chemicals, and emphasizing the need for further exploration into its molecular mechanisms.

Keywords: ZPT; antifouling chemicals; male reproductive toxicity; oxidative stress; sperm.

Figure 1

Reproductive toxicity of antifouling chemicals. Summary of the toxic effects of antifouling chemicals on the reproductive system, indicating that they cause testicular injury leading to a decrease in testosterone and cell damage, which causes sperm deformities and low sperm quality and quantity. Additionally, these chemicals induce oxidative stress, resulting in reduced sperm motility, structural DNA damage, and apoptosis. Furthermore, these antifouling chemicals impair ovary function, leading to impaired oocyte maturation and a decrease in reproductive hormone production.

Figure 2

Molecular mechanisms of ZPT in male reproductive toxic regulation. (a) ZPT’s effects on oxidative parameters, overproduction of ROS, and induction of oxidative stress. (b) Mechanism of ZPT-induced oxidative stress in causing apoptosis and affecting sperm motility. (c) The impact of ZPT on the regulation and expression of reproductive genes and how it affects male fertility.