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Review
. 2024 Feb 21:18:1340108.
doi: 10.3389/fnins.2024.1340108. eCollection 2024.

Exploring sex differences: insights into gene expression, neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, cognition, and pathology

Muataz S Lafta  1 , Jessica Mwinyi  1   2 , Oreste Affatato  1   2 , Gull Rukh  1 , Junhua Dang  1 , Gerhard Andersson  3   4 , Helgi B Schiöth  1
Affiliations
Review

Exploring sex differences: insights into gene expression, neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, cognition, and pathology

Muataz S Lafta et al. Front Neurosci. .

Abstract

Increased knowledge about sex differences is important for development of individualized treatments against many diseases as well as understanding behavioral and pathological differences. This review summarizes sex chromosome effects on gene expression, epigenetics, and hormones in relation to the brain. We explore neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, cognition, and brain pathology aiming to explain the current state of the art. While some domains exhibit strong differences, others reveal subtle differences whose overall significance warrants clarification. We hope that the current review increases awareness and serves as a basis for the planning of future studies that consider both sexes equally regarding similarities and differences.

Keywords: cognition; genetics; neuroanatomy; neurochemistry; pathology; sex differences.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Major disease categories. Major disease categories stratified by sex using data from UK biobank. Sex differences are apparent for many diseases. The frequency for men is generally lower as indicated by the orange bars. The frequency of almost all diseases, except circulatory diseases, respiratory system diseases and mental and behavioral diseases, is higher among women (>50%) as indicated by the blue bars.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Sex differences in mental and behavioral disorders stratified by sex using data from UK biobank exist for many diseases of the nervous system as listed in the figure. The frequency for most disorders is higher for men (>50%) as indicated by the orange bars. While for some other disorders, i.e., neurotic, stress-related and somatoform disorders, disorders of adult personality and behavior, mood (affective) disorders and unspecified mental disorders, the frequency is higher among women as indicated by the blue bars.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Sex differences in the diseases of the nervous system stratified by sex using data from UK biobank. Most of the diseases show higher frequencies in men (>50%) as indicated by the orange bars, except demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system and nerve, nerve root and plexus disorders, as indicated by the blue bars that are more common among women.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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