Biosensing Platforms for Cardiac Biomarker Detection

Abstract

Myocardial infarction (MI) is a cardiovascular disease that occurs when there is an elevated demand for myocardial oxygen as a result of the rupture or erosion of atherosclerotic plaques. Globally, the mortality rates associated with MI are steadily on the rise. Traditional diagnostic biomarkers employed in clinical settings for MI diagnosis have various drawbacks, prompting researchers to investigate fast, precise, and highly sensitive biosensor platforms and technologies. Biosensors are analytical devices that combine biological elements with physicochemical transducers to detect and quantify specific compounds or analytes. These devices play a crucial role in various fields including healthcare, environmental monitoring, food safety, and biotechnology. Biosensors developed for the detection of cardiac biomarkers are typically electrochemical, mass, and optical biosensors. Nanomaterials have emerged as revolutionary components in the field of biosensing, offering unique properties that significantly enhance the sensitivity and specificity of the detection systems. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the advancements and applications of nanomaterial-based biosensing systems. Beginning with an exploration of the fundamental principles governing nanomaterials, we delve into their diverse properties, including but not limited to electrical, optical, magnetic, and thermal characteristics. The integration of these nanomaterials as transducers in biosensors has paved the way for unprecedented developments in analytical techniques. Moreover, the principles and types of biosensors and their applications in cardiovascular disease diagnosis are explained in detail. The current biosensors for cardiac biomarker detection are also discussed, with an elaboration of the pros and cons of existing platforms and concluding with future perspectives.

Figure 1

Scheme of biosensor operation and regeneration. Reprinted with permission from ref (74). Copyright 2015 American Chemical Society.

Figure 2

(A) Surface preparation of a gold electrode for cardiac troponin I detection. Reprinted with permission from ref (111). Copyright 2018 Elsevier. (B) Synthesis of nitrogen-doped reduced graphene oxide and its use for cardiac troponin I detection. Reprinted with permission from ref (112). Copyright 2018 Elsevier. (C) Modification of the screen-printed electrodes for cardiac troponin I detection. Reprinted with permission from ref (113). Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society.

Figure 3

(A) Response of QCM biosensor with adding cTnI in human serum captured by antibody-TiO2 conjugates and the subsequent photocatalytic silver staining process. Reprinted with permission from ref (130). Copyright 2021 Elsevier. (B) Scheme of cardiac biomarker detection (a), SEM image of ZnO piezoelectric film (b), and sensing mechanism of biosensor (c). Reprinted with permission from ref (131). Copyright 2020 Elsevier. (C) Curves of four cardiac biomarkers as extracted from (i) equilibrium analysis and (ii) pre-equilibrium phase responses for CK-MB and CRP, and 600 s for D-dimer and PAPP-A. Reprinted with permission from ref (132). Copyright 2011 Elsevier.

Figure 4

(A) Scheme of SPR sensor utilizing gold nanoparticles conjugated with a detector antibody. Reprinted with permission from ref (157). Copyright 2016 Elsevier. (B) The fluorescence spectra of the biosensor with increasing concentrations of cTnI antigen (a). The relationship between the PL intensity of the biosensor with increasing log concentrations of cTnI (b). Reprinted with permission from ref (166). Copyright 2016 Elsevier. (C) SERS spectra corresponding to the different concentrations of cTnI and CK-MB (a). The relation curves of the Raman intensity versus the logarithm of the concentration of cTnI and CK-MB (b and c). Reprinted with permission from ref (173). Copyright 2021 Elsevier.