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Review
. 2024 Mar 14;20(2):107-119.
doi: 10.14797/mdcvj.1328. eCollection 2024.

Sex Disparities in Cardiovascular Disease

Madeline K Mahowald  1 , Khadeeja Esmail  1 , Fatima M Ezzeddine  2 , Calvin Choi  1 , Hanna Mieszczanska  1 , Gladys Velarde  1
Affiliations
Review

Sex Disparities in Cardiovascular Disease

Madeline K Mahowald et al. Methodist Debakey Cardiovasc J. .

Abstract

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in women. It remains underdiagnosed, undertreated, and portends worse outcomes in women than men. Disparities exist in every stage of science, from bench research to the editorial board of major journals and in every cardiovascular subspecialty. This review summarizes differences in cardiovascular risk factors and disparities in management and outcomes of ischemic heart disease, heart failure, aortic stenosis, and atrial fibrillation. It also provides an overview of female representation as participants and leaders of clinical trials, editorial boards, and academic institutions. Strategies to overcome these disparities are proposed with examples of successful programs.

Keywords: cardiovascular risk factors; healthcare disparities; ischemic heart disease; representation in cardiovascular research; treatment gaps; women’s cardiovascular health.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors have no competing interests to declare.

Figures

Key female-specific risk factors for CVD across her reproductive lifespan
Figure 1
Key female-specific risk factors for cardiovascular disease across a woman’s reproductive lifespan. PCOS: polycystic ovary syndrome; ART: assisted reproductive technology; CVD: cardiovascular disease
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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