Reactive and control processes in the development of internalizing and externalizing problems across early childhood to adolescence

Abstract

Reactive and control processes - e.g., negative emotionality and immediacy preference - may predict distinct psychopathology trajectories. However, externalizing and internalizing problems change in behavioral manifestation across development and across contexts, thus necessitating the use of different measures and informants across ages. This is the first study that created developmental scales for both internalizing and externalizing problems by putting scores from different informants and measures onto the same scale to examine temperament facets as risk factors. Multidimensional linking allowed us to examine trajectories of internalizing and externalizing problems from ages 2 to 15 years (N = 1,364) using near-annual ratings by mothers, fathers, teachers, other caregivers, and self report. We examined reactive and control processes in early childhood as predictors of the trajectories and as predictors of general versus specific psychopathology in adolescence. Negative emotionality at age 4 predicted general psychopathology and unique externalizing problems at age 15. Wait times on an immediacy preference task at age 4 were negatively associated with age 15 general psychopathology, and positively associated with unique internalizing problems. Findings demonstrate the value of developmental scaling for examining development of psychopathology across a lengthy developmental span and the importance of considering reactive and control processes in development of psychopathology.

Keywords: Bifactor; delay of gratification; heterotypic continuity; longitudinal; negative emotionality.

Figure 1. Depiction of How the Scores from Various Raters and Measures Were Linked at Different Ages

Note. Raters are depicted in the rows, and the child’s age (in years) is depicted in the columns. Different shapes indicate different measures (square = Child Behavior Checklist 4–18; rounded square = Child Behavior Checklist 2–3; circle = Teacher’s Report Form; diamond = Caregiver–Teacher Report Form; hexagon = Youth Self-Report). A solid arrow indicates that scores from the same measure were linked using all items (i.e., all items were common items; e.g., mothers’ ratings at ages 6 and 8). A broken arrow indicates that scores from different measures were linked using the common items (e.g., mothers’ ratings at ages 3 and 4). The direction of the arrow indicates the measure to which the other was linked (e.g., mothers’ ratings at age 8 were linked to mothers’ ratings at age 6). The solid black box indicates the referent measure (mothers’ ratings at age 6) to which every other measure was linked either directly or indirectly. The gray bounding boxes indicate that scores from different raters were linked using the common items (e.g., self-report ratings at age 15 were linked to mothers’ ratings at age 15).

Figure 2. Mean Factor Scores By Age, Rater, and Type of Behavior Problem

Figure 3. Children’s Model-Implied Growth Curves of Internalizing and Externalizing Problems by Rater

Note. “All-Rated” refers to the model-implied ratings for the “average” rater.

Figure 4. Children’s Model-Implied Externalizing Problems Trajectory as a Function of Duration of Time Waited in a Self-Imposed Waiting Task