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Review
. 2024 Apr 10;13(8):2184.
doi: 10.3390/jcm13082184.

Possible Mechanisms for Adverse Cardiac Events Caused by Exercise-Induced Hypertension in Long-Distance Middle-Aged Runners: A Review

Affiliations
Review

Possible Mechanisms for Adverse Cardiac Events Caused by Exercise-Induced Hypertension in Long-Distance Middle-Aged Runners: A Review

Young-Joo Kim et al. J Clin Med. .

Abstract

Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is rare among athletes. However, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is the leading cause of SCD among those <35 years of age. Meanwhile, coronary artery disease (CAD) is the primary SCD cause among those ≥35 years of age. CAD-induced plaque ruptures are believed to be a significant cause of cardiovascular diseases in middle-aged individuals who participate in extreme long-distance running activities such as marathons. A total of 1970 articles related to EIH were identified using search terms. Out of these, 1946 studies were excluded for reasons such as arterial hypertension, exercise-induced pulmonary hypertension, the absence of exercise stress testing (EST), and a lack of relevance to EIH. The study analyzed 24 studies related to both long-distance runners with exercise-induced hypertension (EIH) and the general public. Among these, 11 studies were quasi-experimentally designed studies used in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on long-distance runners with EIH. Additionally, 12 studies utilized cohort designs, and one study with a quasi-experimental design was conducted among the general population. Recent studies suggest that an imbalance between oxygen demand and supply due to ventricular hypertrophy may be the actual cause of cardiovascular disease, regardless of CAD. Exercising excessively over an extended period can reduce endothelial function and increase arterial stiffness, which in turn increases afterload and leads to an excessive increase in blood pressure during exercise. Exercise-induced hypertension (EIH), which increases the morbidity rate of resting hypertension and is a risk factor for cardio-cerebro-vascular diseases, is more prevalent in middle-aged long-distance runners than in runners from other age groups, and it increases the prevalence of critical arrhythmias, such as atrial fibrillation or ventricular arrhythmias. EIH is associated with angiotensin II activity, and angiotensin II receptor blockers show promising effects in middle-aged runners. Further, guidelines for preventing excessive participation in races and restricting exercise intensity and frequency would be useful. This review identifies EIH as a potential risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and describes how EIH induces SCD.

Keywords: cardiac death; cardiovascular disease; exercise; hypertension; long-distance runner.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors indicate that they have no conflicts of interest regarding the content of this review paper.

Figures

Figure 2
Figure 2
Mechanism of EIH in long-distance runners. BP, blood pressure; CVD, cardiovascular disease; HTN, hypertension; RAAS, renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system; SBP, systolic blood pressure. ↑; increase, ↓; decrease, Refs. [9,25,26,27,37,54,55,56,57,58,59,60].
Figure 3
Figure 3
The atrial fibrillation mechanism and an abnormal electrocardiogram of EIH in middle-aged long-distance runners. BP, blood pressure; ECG, electrocardiogram; EIH, exercise-induced hypertension. ↑; increase, Refs. [31,32,56,91,93,94,95,96,97].
Figure 4
Figure 4
Summary of the sudden cardiac death mechanism hypothesis in middle-aged long-distance runners with EIH. BP, blood pressure; CAD, coronary artery disease; cTnI, cardiac troponin I; cTnT, cardiac troponin T; NT–proBNP, N–terminal pro–B-type natriuretic peptide; CVD, cardiovascular disease; EIH, exercise-induced hypertension; HR, heart rate; RNS, reactive nitrogen species; ROS, reactive oxygen species; RPP, rate pressure product; SBP, systolic blood pressure. Refs. [10,11,12,13,21,22,23,24,27,28,31,32,33,37,38,39,41,43,44,56,58,59,60,61,68,71,75,76,77,78,79,80,82,85,91,93,94,95,96,97,106,107,108,109].
Figure 1
Figure 1
Flow chart of research process.

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