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Review
. 2024 Apr 15;91(Spec Issue):225-244.
doi: 10.5114/jhk/18666. eCollection 2024 Mar.

Not Only Protein: Dietary Supplements to Optimize the Skeletal Muscle Growth Response to Resistance Training: The Current State of Knowledge

Antonio Paoli  1 , Giuseppe Cerullo  1 , Antonino Bianco  2 , Marco Neri  3 , Federico Gennaro  1 , Davide Charrier  1 , Tatiana Moro  1
Affiliations
Review

Not Only Protein: Dietary Supplements to Optimize the Skeletal Muscle Growth Response to Resistance Training: The Current State of Knowledge

Antonio Paoli et al. J Hum Kinet. .

Abstract

Regarding skeletal muscle hypertrophy, resistance training and nutrition, the most often discussed and proposed supplements include proteins. Although, the correct amount, quality, and daily distribution of proteins is of paramount importance for skeletal muscle hypertrophy, there are many other nutritional supplements that can help and support the physiological response of skeletal muscle to resistance training in terms of muscle hypertrophy. A healthy muscle environment and a correct whole muscle metabolism response to the stress of training is a prerequisite for the increase in muscle protein synthesis and, therefore, muscle hypertrophy. In this review, we discuss the role of different nutritional supplements such as carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, creatine, omega-3, polyphenols, and probiotics as a support and complementary factors to the main supplement i.e., protein. The different mechanisms are discussed in the light of recent evidence.

Keywords: ergogenic aids; muscle hypertrophy; strength training.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Multiple effects of leucine on hypertrophic response. The black arrows suggest the main effects driven by leucine on anabolic factors (i.e., improved protein synthesis). The truncated red arrows indicate inhibitory activity. AMPK, AMP activated protein kinase; GATOR1/2, Gap activity toward Rags 1/2; GDP, Guanosine-5'-diphosphate; GTP, Guanosine-5'-triphosphate; LAT1, L-type large neutral amino acid transporter small subunit 1; Leu, Leucine; mTORC1, mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1; Rheb, Ras homolog enriched in brain. Created with BioRender.com
Figure 2
Figure 2
Multiple effects of carbohydrates and glycogen on hypertrophic response. The black arrows suggest the main effects on anabolic factors (i.e., enhanced proteinsynthesis). The truncated red arrows indicate inhibitory activity (i.e., protein breakdown). AMPK, AMP activated protein kinase; FOXO3, Forkhead box O3; mTORC1, mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1; MuRF-1, muscle ring finger-1; PI3K, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; Rheb, Ras homolog enriched in brain; TSC1/2, tuberous sclerosis complex. Created with BioRender.com
Figure 3
Figure 3
The main pathways involved in the multiple effects of omega-3 on muscle health. The black arrows suggest the main effects influenced by enhanced concentration of EPA and DHA (i.e., enrichment of EPA and DHA into membrane phospholipids, enhanced protein synthesis). The truncated arrows refer to the mechanisms inhibited by omega-3 (i.e., protein breakdown, inflammation, decline in satellite cell proliferation, and improved mitochondrial dynamics). DHA, docosahexaenoic acid; EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid; GPR120, G-coupled protein receptor 120; LAT1, L-type large neutral amino acid transporter small subunit 1; MAPK, Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase; mTORC1, mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1; MuRF-1, muscle ring finger-1; MyoD, myoblast determination protein 1; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; PPARs, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Created with BioRender.com
Figure 4
Figure 4
Illustration of the representative pathways of polyphenols effects on muscle health The black arrows suggest the main effects influenced by polyphenols (i.e., enhanced protein synthesis and satellite cell proliferation). The truncated arrows refer to the mechanisms inhibited by polyphenols (i.e., protein breakdown, inflammation, and oxidative stress). mTORC1, mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1; MuRF-1, muscle ring finger-1; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-lightchain-enhancer of activated B cells. Created with BioRender.com
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