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Review
. 2024 Apr 26;16(5):685.
doi: 10.3390/v16050685.

Impact of Prior COVID-19 Immunization and/or Prior Infection on Immune Responses and Clinical Outcomes

Achilleas Livieratos  1 , Charalambos Gogos  2 , Karolina Akinosoglou  2   3
Affiliations
Review

Impact of Prior COVID-19 Immunization and/or Prior Infection on Immune Responses and Clinical Outcomes

Achilleas Livieratos et al. Viruses. .

Abstract

Cellular and humoral immunity exhibit dynamic adaptation to the mutating SARS-CoV-2 virus. It is noteworthy that immune responses differ significantly, influenced by whether a patient has received vaccination or whether there is co-occurrence of naturally acquired and vaccine-induced immunity, known as hybrid immunity. The different immune reactions, conditional on vaccination status and the viral variant involved, bear implications for inflammatory responses, patient outcomes, pathogen transmission rates, and lingering post-COVID conditions. Considering these developments, we have performed a review of recently published literature, aiming to disentangle the intricate relationships among immunological profiles, transmission, the long-term health effects post-COVID infection poses, and the resultant clinical manifestations. This investigation is directed toward understanding the variability in the longevity and potency of cellular and humoral immune responses elicited by immunization and hybrid infection.

Keywords: COVID-19; SARS-CoV-2 infection; cellular immunity; clinical outcomes; humoral immunity; immune responses; transmission; vaccination.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Schematic for study selection.
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Supplementary concepts