Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Review
. 2024 Apr 26;16(5):685.
doi: 10.3390/v16050685.

Impact of Prior COVID-19 Immunization and/or Prior Infection on Immune Responses and Clinical Outcomes

Achilleas Livieratos  1 , Charalambos Gogos  2 , Karolina Akinosoglou  2   3
Affiliations
Review

Impact of Prior COVID-19 Immunization and/or Prior Infection on Immune Responses and Clinical Outcomes

Achilleas Livieratos et al. Viruses. .

Abstract

Cellular and humoral immunity exhibit dynamic adaptation to the mutating SARS-CoV-2 virus. It is noteworthy that immune responses differ significantly, influenced by whether a patient has received vaccination or whether there is co-occurrence of naturally acquired and vaccine-induced immunity, known as hybrid immunity. The different immune reactions, conditional on vaccination status and the viral variant involved, bear implications for inflammatory responses, patient outcomes, pathogen transmission rates, and lingering post-COVID conditions. Considering these developments, we have performed a review of recently published literature, aiming to disentangle the intricate relationships among immunological profiles, transmission, the long-term health effects post-COVID infection poses, and the resultant clinical manifestations. This investigation is directed toward understanding the variability in the longevity and potency of cellular and humoral immune responses elicited by immunization and hybrid infection.

Keywords: COVID-19; SARS-CoV-2 infection; cellular immunity; clinical outcomes; humoral immunity; immune responses; transmission; vaccination.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Schematic for study selection.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

    1. Yorsaeng R., Atsawawaranunt K., Suntronwong N., Kanokudom S., Chansaenroj J., Assawakosri S., Nilyanimit P., Aeemjinda R., Khanarat N., Wongsrisang L., et al. SARS-CoV-2 Antibody Dynamics after COVID-19 Vaccination and Infection: A Real-World Cross-Sectional Analysis. Vaccines. 2023;11:1184. doi: 10.3390/vaccines11071184. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Health Organization WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. 2023. [(accessed on 1 April 2024)]. Available online: https://covid19.who.int/
    1. Seo W.J., Kang J., Kang H.K., Park S.H., Koo H.K., Park H.K., Lee S.S., Song J.E., Kwak Y.G., Kang J. Impact of prior vaccination on clinical outcomes of patients with COVID-19. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 2022;11:1316–1324. doi: 10.1080/22221751.2022.2069516. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Guo L., Wang G., Wang Y., Zhang Q., Ren L., Gu X., Huang T., Zhong J., Wang Y., Wang X., et al. SARS-CoV-2-specific antibody and T-cell responses 1 year after infection in people recovered from COVID-19: A longitudinal cohort study. Lancet Microbe. 2022;3:e348–e356. doi: 10.1016/s2666-5247(22)00036-2. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Havervall S., Marking U., Greilert-Norin N., Gordon M., Ng H., Christ W., Phillipson M., Nilsson P., Hober S., Blom K., et al. Impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection on vaccine-induced immune responses over time. Clin. Transl. Immunol. 2022;11:e1388. doi: 10.1002/cti2.1388. - DOI - PMC - PubMed

Supplementary concepts