Biomimetic Ghost Nanomedicine-Based Optotheranostics for Cancer

Abstract

Theranostic medicine combines diagnostics and therapeutics, focusing on solid tumors at minimal doses. Optically activated photosensitizers are significant examples owing to their photophysical and chemical properties. Several optotheranostics have been tested that convert light to imaging signals, therapeutic radicals, and heat. Upon light exposure, conjugated photosensitizers kill tumor cells by producing reactive oxygen species and heat or by releasing cancer antigens. Despite clinical trials, these molecularly conjugated photosensitizers require protection from their surroundings and a localized direction for site-specific delivery during blood circulation. Therefore, cell membrane biomimetic ghosts have been proposed for precise and safe delivery of these optically active large molecules, which are clinically relevant because of their biocompatibility, long circulation time, bypass of immune cell recognition, and targeting ability. This review focuses on the role of biomimetic nanoparticles in the treatment and diagnosis of tumors through light-mediated diagnostics and therapy, providing insights into their preclinical and clinical status.

Keywords: Biomimetics; Cell Ghosts; Optotheranostics; Phototherapeutics; Solid tumors.

Figure 1

Passive versus active nanoparticle targeting in cancer therapy. Mechanisms of passive and active targeting in NP-mediated drug delivery systems for cancer treatment, showing how NPs circulate through healthy tissue versus tumor tissue and the specific binding and internalization in cancer cells through active targeting. Adapted from ref (8). Available under CC-BY 4.0. Copyright 2022 MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.

Figure 2

Optically active biomimetic nanoparticles versus stimuli-responsive nanoparticles. (A) Classification and characteristics of nanoparticles, categorizing nanoparticles into organic, inorganic, and carbon-based types, each with unique structures, such as liposomes and dendrimers, highlighting key nanoparticle characteristics such as size and responsiveness, which are crucial for various applications in nanomedicine. Various types of biomimetic nanoparticles have been developed, including cell-membrane-coated, targeting ligands, and natural protein-based nanoparticles. (B) Advantages and applications of biomimetic NPs. Advancements in hybrid cell-derived biomimetic materials in overcoming biological barriers include (1) facilitating intracellular delivery, (2) crossing epithelial barriers, (3) navigating the tumor microenvironment, and (4) targeting immune cells, thereby highlighting their therapeutic potential in drug delivery and cancer treatment. Owing to the shortcomings of the existing tumor treatment approaches, phototherapy has emerged as a promising alternative. Without the need for drugs, phototherapy, which transforms light energy into chemical or thermal energy, offers a more straightforward and potent approach to tumor treatment. Both photothermal therapy (PTT) and PDT have been investigated in the context of phototherapy. Designed by Biorender.

Figure 3

A schematic representation of the development of biomimetic NPs for bioimaging applications shows the process of utilizing various imaging agents, such as aggregation-induced emission fluorogens, carbon-based nanomaterials, upconversion nanoparticles, quantum dots, porous silicon nanoparticles, and gold nanoparticles, for coating cell membranes derived from cells (red blood cells, white blood cells, macrophages, cancer cells, platelets, stem cells, and bacteria) specifically prepared for this purpose, ultimately leading to enhanced biocompatibility and functionality in bioimaging techniques. This figure also highlights the main issues to improve biomimetic nanoparticle development, such as the complexity of production and stability issues as well as the key advantages they offer, including biocompatibility and homologous tumor targeting. This integration aims to enhance bioimaging for diagnostics and improve drug delivery systems for medical applications. Designed by Biorender.

Figure 4

Optically active biomimetic therapeutic agents for multimodal diagnostic imaging and therapeutic approaches in nanomedicine. This diagram shows the synergistic use of biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) with a variety of imaging and treatment techniques. This illustrates how biomimetic NPs can enhance the capabilities of X-rays, NIR, PAI, PTT, SPECT, CT, MRI, and ultrasound. Each technique has advantages, such as the nonionizing nature of NIR, real-time imaging capacity of ultrasound, and excellent soft tissue contrast provided by MRI. The figure also shows how these imaging modalities can be used in conjunction with biomimetic nanoparticles to improve diagnosis and treatment, particularly in oncology. Designed by Biorender.

Figure 5

Biomimetics of cancer nanomedicine. (A) Drug carriers in the bloodstream release drugs near proliferating cancer cells, with some cancer cells depicted as dying owing to drug effects. (B) The process of creating targeted RBC membrane-coated nanoparticles by cloaking polymer nanoparticles with RBC membranes that have targeting ligands, which are then loaded with drugs. (C) Biomimetic immunotherapy via the selective uptake of these targeted nanoparticles by tumor cells, leading to tumor cell death and apoptosis and the subsequent activation of dendritic cells (DC) and CD8+ T cells, which are crucial for the immune response to the tumor. Designed by Biorender.