Paradoxical gender effects in meat consumption across cultures

Abstract

Men tend to eat more meat than women, but it is not clear why. We tested three hypotheses in a cross-cultural design (20,802 individuals in 23 countries across four continents): that gender differences are (a) universal, (b) related to gender roles and thus weaker in countries with higher gender equality and human development, or (c) related to opportunities to express gender roles and thus stronger in countries with higher gender equality and human development. Across all countries, men tended to consume more meat than women. However, this difference increased significantly in countries with greater human development and gender equality. The paradoxical gender gap in meat consumption aligns with previous research that suggests greater differences in behavior across genders in contexts that are more developed and gender equal. We discuss implications for theories of culture and gender as well as practical implications for global meat reduction.

Keywords: Culture; Equality; Gender; Meat consumption; Paradoxical gender effect.

Figure 1

Overall levels (A) and gender differences (B) in meat consumption frequency across sampled countries. For gender differences, redder color indicates higher levels of consumption frequency for men. (A) Overall Standardized Levels of Meat Consumption Frequency. (B) Gender Differences (in Cohen’s d) in Meat Consumption Frequency.

Figure 2

Overall differences in meat consumption frequency across genders.

Figure 3

Gender differences in meat consumption frequency are greater in countries with higher human development (A) and gender equality (B). Country-level predictors centered at the global mean.