Advances in Legume Systematics 14. Classification of Caesalpinioideae. Part 2: Higher-level classification

Abstract

Caesalpinioideae is the second largest subfamily of legumes (Leguminosae) with ca. 4680 species and 163 genera. It is an ecologically and economically important group formed of mostly woody perennials that range from large canopy emergent trees to functionally herbaceous geoxyles, lianas and shrubs, and which has a global distribution, occurring on every continent except Antarctica. Following the recent re-circumscription of 15 Caesalpinioideae genera as presented in Advances in Legume Systematics 14, Part 1, and using as a basis a phylogenomic analysis of 997 nuclear gene sequences for 420 species and all but five of the genera currently recognised in the subfamily, we present a new higher-level classification for the subfamily. The new classification of Caesalpinioideae comprises eleven tribes, all of which are either new, reinstated or re-circumscribed at this rank: Caesalpinieae Rchb. (27 genera / ca. 223 species), Campsiandreae LPWG (2 / 5-22), Cassieae Bronn (7 / 695), Ceratonieae Rchb. (4 / 6), Dimorphandreae Benth. (4 / 35), Erythrophleeae LPWG (2 /13), Gleditsieae Nakai (3 / 20), Mimoseae Bronn (100 / ca. 3510), Pterogyneae LPWG (1 / 1), Schizolobieae Nakai (8 / 42-43), Sclerolobieae Benth. & Hook. f. (5 / ca. 113). Although many of these lineages have been recognised and named in the past, either as tribes or informal generic groups, their circumscriptions have varied widely and changed over the past decades, such that all the tribes described here differ in generic membership from those previously recognised. Importantly, the approximately 3500 species and 100 genera of the former subfamily Mimosoideae are now placed in the reinstated, but newly circumscribed, tribe Mimoseae. Because of the large size and ecological importance of the tribe, we also provide a clade-based classification system for Mimoseae that includes 17 named lower-level clades. Fourteen of the 100 Mimoseae genera remain unplaced in these lower-level clades: eight are resolved in two grades and six are phylogenetically isolated monogeneric lineages. In addition to the new classification, we provide a key to genera, morphological descriptions and notes for all 163 genera, all tribes, and all named clades. The diversity of growth forms, foliage, flowers and fruits are illustrated for all genera, and for each genus we also provide a distribution map, based on quality-controlled herbarium specimen localities. A glossary for specialised terms used in legume morphology is provided. This new phylogenetically based classification of Caesalpinioideae provides a solid system for communication and a framework for downstream analyses of biogeography, trait evolution and diversification, as well as for taxonomic revision of still understudied genera.

Keywords: Classification; Fabaceae; Leguminosae; Mimosoideae; diversity; phylogenomics; taxonomy.

Figure 1.

ACaesalpinioideae genus richness across floristic realms (according to Liu et al. 2023). The numbers within the circles represent the total number of genera in each realm. The numbers on the lines represent the number of genera shared between two realms (> 10 genera) B Number of Casalpinioideae genera in the floristic subrealms (sensu Liu et al. 2023). The numbers associated with the two polygons indicate the number of genera restricted to the two major blocks of tropical and subtropical areas in the New World and the Old World (maps modified from Liu et al. 2023, CC BY 4.0).

Figure 2.

Map showing the global distribution of Caesalpinioideae species richness. Numbers of Caesalpinioideae species per one degree latitude / longitude grid cell. Infraspecific taxa are not counted individually but are included at the species level. All maps in this special issue are based on quality-controlled occurrence data from digitised herbarium specimens and floristic surveys (see Suppl. material 1 for details on occurrence data and methods used to generate maps).

Figure 3.

Map showing the global distribution of Caesalpinioideae genus richness. Numbers of Caesalpinioideae genera per one degree latitude / longitude grid cell.

Figure 4.

Phylogeny of Caesalpinioideae showing the tribal classification presented here. The names and phylogenetic placements of all 63 non-Mimoseae Caesalpinioideae genera are shown and known generic non-monophyly is indicated with terminal names of non-monophyletic genus in bold. The most likely placements for four unsampled genera are indicated with dashed lines; see respective treatments for details. Tribe Mimoseae has been collapsed (see Fig. 5). Branch lengths are expressed in coalescent units, and terminal branch lengths have been assigned an arbitrary uniform length for visual clarity. Monophyletic genera are represented by single branches; see Suppl. material 2 for a phylogeny with all accessions. See Suppl. material 3 for gene tree support across the phylogeny. The phylogeny is a pruned version of the backbone phylogeny of Ringelberg et al. (2023), where full details of the data and phylogenomic analysis methods are presented.

Figure 5.

Phylogeny of tribe Mimoseae showing the clade-based classification of the tribe with two named higher-level and 17 named lower-level clades. The names and phylogenetic placements of all 100 Mimoseae genera are shown, and known generic non-monophyly is indicated with terminal names of non-monophyletic genera in bold. The most likely placement of the unsampled genus Microlobius is indicated with a dashed line; see Stryphnodendron clade treatment (page 319) for details. Branch lengths are expressed in coalescent units, and terminal branch lengths have been assigned an arbitrary uniform length for visual clarity. Monophyletic genera are represented by single branches; see Suppl. material 2 for a phylogeny with all accessions. See Suppl. material 3 for gene tree support across the phylogeny. The phylogeny is a pruned version of the backbone phylogeny of Ringelberg et al. (2023) where full details of the data and phylogenomic analysis methods are presented.

Scheme 1.

Scheme 2.

Scheme 3.

Scheme 4.

Scheme 5.

Scheme 6.

Scheme 7.

Figure 6.

Generic relationships in tribe Ceratonieae. Left part of figure shows complete genus-level Caesalpinioideae phylogeny with the Ceratonieae indicated with a red rectangle. Branch lengths are expressed in coalescent units and terminal branches were assigned an arbitrary uniform length for visual clarity. Support for relationships is based on fractions of supporting and conflicting gene trees: pie charts show gene tree support and conflict per node (blue representing supporting gene trees, green gene trees supporting the most common alternative topology, red gene trees supporting further alternative topologies, grey gene trees uninformative for this node), and numbers above pie charts are Internode Certainty All support values [both calculated with PhyParts (Smith et al. 2015)]. If present, red numbers below pie charts are non-significant (i.e. > 0.05) outcomes of ASTRAL’s polytomy test (Sayyari and Mirarab 2018), which tests for each node whether the polytomy null model can be rejected. Monophyletic genera are represented by single branches; see Suppl. material 2 for a phylogeny with all accessions. See Suppl. material 3 for gene tree support across the phylogeny. The phylogeny is a pruned version of the backbone phylogeny of Ringelberg et al. (2023), where full details of the data and phylogenomic analysis methods are presented.

Figure 7.

Flower, fruit, and vegetative characters of tribe CeratonieaeAArcoagonavensis Urb., foliage and fruits, Dominican Republic BTetrapterocarpongeayi Humbert, fruits and part of bipinnate leaf, Madagascar (Du Puy M410) C–EAcrocarpusfraxinifolius Wight & Arn., India, cultivated tree C inflorescence D dehisced fruits and new flush foliage E part of a bipinnate leaf F–JCeratoniasiliqua L. F tree, Jordan, semi-desert near Petra G fruits, Israel, Mt. Scopus Botanical Gardens, Jerusalem H pistillate flowers, Crete I staminate flowers, Crete J staminate inflorescences, Israel, Jerusalem Botanical Gardens. Photo credits A F Jimenez R. B D Du Puy C–Ehttps://efloraofindia.com/2011/02/01/acrocarpus-fraxinifolius/E D Valke F, G, J O Fragman-Sapir H, I G Lewis.

Figure 8.

Distribution of Arcoa based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 9.

Distribution of Tetrapterocarpon based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 10.

Distribution of Acrocarpus based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 11.

Distribution of Ceratonia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. Note that many distribution points observed here are from cultivated Ceratonia specimens. The true native range of the genus Ceratonia is likely to be more restricted than depicted on the map. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 12.

Generic relationships in tribe Gleditsieae. For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 13.

Gleditsieae, diversity of vegetative morphology and fruits A–CUmtizalisteriana Sim A small tree B branch with pinnately compound leaves and inflorescence C branch with thorn at node DGymnocladusassamicus Kanjilal ex P.C. Kanjilal branch with bipinnate leaves and inflorescence EGleditsiajaponica Miq., bipinnate leaf with several pinnae replaced by single leaflets, cultivated at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew FGleditsiaamorphoides (Griseb.) Taub., branched thorns GUmtizalisteriana dehisced fruits HGymnocladusdioicus L., fruit IGleditsiatriacanthos L., fruits. Photo credits A–C, G SAplants, Wikimedia Commons (CC-BY-SA 4.0) D B Choudhury E, F GP Lewis H Chicago Botanic Garden (photographer unknown) I A Schnabel.

Figure 14.

Gleditsieae, floral diversity A, BUmtizalisteriana Sim A branch with inflorescence of hermaphrodite flowers B close-up of flowers C, DGymnocladusassamicus Kanjilal ex P.C. Kanjilal C inflorescence of hermaphrodite flowers D dissected hermaphrodite flower EGymnocladuschinensis Baill., inflorescence, cultivated at the US National Arboretum FGymnocladusdioicus L., cultivated at Chicago Botanic Garden, upright inflorescence of hermaphrodite flowers G branch with leaves and inflorescence HGleditsiatriacanthos L., inflorescence of staminate flowers IGleditsiacaspica Desf., inflorescence, cultivated at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Photo credits A, B SAplants, Wikimedia Commons (CC-BY-SA 4.0) C, D Murata E PS Herendeen F, G R Carlson H Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (photographer unknown) I M Svanderlik.

Figure 15.

Distribution of Umtiza based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 16.

Distribution of Gymnocladus based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 17.

Distribution of Gleditsia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 18.

Contrasting phylogenetic positions for Pterogyne as supported by different analyses A sister to all Caesalpinioideae, except Ceratonieae and Gleditsiae (ca. 1500 nuclear genes; Zhao et al. 2021) B sister to Cassieae (SUSY nuclear gene and combined trnL intron + morphological data; Manzanilla and Brunau 2012, Herendeen et al. 2003a, respectively) C sister to Caesalpinieae (trnL intron and coding plastid genes; Bruneau et al. 2001; Zhang et al. 2020) D sister to the remaining Caesalpinioideae (plastid non-coding loci; Zhang et al. 2020).

Figure 19.

Pterogynenitens Tul., the only species of tribe PterogyneaeA cultivated tree in Brasília (Brazil) B flowering branch showing the foliage and inflorescences; note the alternate leaflets; the insets show an expanding leaf (left) highlighting the tiny caducous stipules (arrow) and a stipel at the leaflet attachment (right) C inflorescences with a visiting Syrphidae fly (Diptera) D part of the spicate raceme with some flowers removed E close-up of flowers F samaras, the inset showing the subterminal style remnant at the top of the seed chamber (arrows) G samara seed chamber opened to show the seed. Photo credits A–G RT Queiroz https://rubens-plantasdobrasil.blogspot.com/.

Figure 20.

Distribution of Pterogyne based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 21.

Generic relationships in tribe Cassieae. Two most likely positions of the unsampled genus Vouacapoua are indicated with dashed lines: 1) as sister to all Cassieae [following Bruneau et al. (2008) and Marazzi and Sanderson (2010)], and 2) as sister to Melanoxylum and Recordoxylon [following Manzanilla and Bruneau (2012) and Kates et al. (2024)]. For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 22.

Examples of variation in stamens and pistil among Cassieae genera ACassiamoschata Kunth (Rando et al. 1184) BSennamacranthera (DC. ex Collad.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby (Rando et al. 272) CChamaecristabahiae (H.S. Irwin) H.S. Irwin & Barneby (Rando et al. 1214) DMelanoxylumbrauna Schott (Cardoso et al. 2439) ERecordoxylonspeciosum (Benoist) Gazel ex Barneby (Pereira-Silva et al. 15631) FVouacapouaamericana Aubl (Nascimento 245). GBatesiafloribunda Spruce ex Benth (based on photographs of Projeto Flora Reserva Ducke, INPA/DFID, comm. Mike Hopkins). Scale: 1 cm. Drawn by Najla M.B. Scheidegger / @ilustre.nt.

Figure 23.

Examples of Batesia, Melanoxylum, Recordoxylon and Vouacapoua diversity ABatesiafloribunda Spruce ex Benth. extrafloral nectary, petiolules and part of leaflets (Cota 1158) B, CVouacapouaamericana Aubl. (Cardoso et al. 3450) B leaves and immature fruit C mature fruits and seeds on the ground D, EMelanoxylumbrauna Schott (Cardoso et al. 2439) D inflorescence, buds and flowers E flower F–HRecordoxylonspeciosum (Benoist) Gazel ex Barneby (Pereira-Silva et al. 15631) F trunk of mature individual G flowers and immature fruit H flower. Photo credits A–E D Cardoso F–H G Pereira-Silva.

Figure 24.

Distribution of Vouacapoua based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 25.

Distribution of Batesia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 26.

Distribution of Melanoxylum based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 27.

Distribution of Recordoxylon based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 28.

Distribution of Chamaecrista based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 29.

Examples of Chamaecrista diversity AChamaecristaxinguensis (Ducke) H.S. Irwin & Barneby trunk of mature individual (Rando et al. 1208) BC.compitalis (H.S. Irwin & Barneby) H.S. Irwin & Barneby base of trunk of mature individual (Rando et al. 1364) CC.ensiformis (Vell.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby flowering branch (Rando & Cota 1366) DC.flexuosa (L.) Greene flower, leaves in background EC.desvauxiivar.latistipula (Benth.) G.P. Lewis, branch with flowers and fruit FC.ramosavar.curvifolia (Vogel) G.P. Lewis branches and flower GC.distichoclada (Benth.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby flowering branch (Rando et al. 1230) HC.lineata (Sw.) Greene leaves and flower (Rando 964) IC.andromedea (Mart. ex Benth.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby branch with leaves and flowers (Rando et al. 1251) JC.vauthieri (Benth.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby flowering branches (Cardoso et al. 4096) KC.ochnaceavar.purpurascens (Benth.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby inflorescence and leaves LC.scabra (Pohl ex Benth.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby leaves and inflorescence (Rando et al. 1266). Photo credits A, C, G–I JG Rando B JG Jardim D–F, K H Moreira J D Cardoso L MF Simon.

Figure 30.

Examples of Cassia diversity ACassiamoschata Kunth inflorescence BC.ferruginea (Schrad.) Schrad. ex DC. branch showing the spiraled leaves and an inflorescence (Rando et al. 125) CC.fistula L. branch with leaves and an inflorescence DC.moschata branches with leaves, an inflorescence and fruits (left corner) in the background (Rando et al. 1184) EC.javanica L. branches with leaves and an inflorescence FC.grandis L.f. flowers. Photo credits A–D JG Rando E D Gissi F D Cardoso.

Figure 31.

Distribution of Cassia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 32.

Examples of Senna diversity ASennamacranthera (DC. ex Collad.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby flowering branch (Lima et al. 422) BSennaalata (L.) Roxb. flowering branch CSennacorifolia (Benth.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby flowering branch (Rando et al. 936) DSennaangulata (Vogel) H.S. Irwin & Barneby fruits ESennamultijuga (Rich.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby mature individual (Lima 408) FSennapendula (Humb.& Bonpl. ex Willd.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby flower (Lima et al. 435) GSennaspectabilis (DC.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby flower (unvouchered) HSennarugosa (G. Don) H.S. Irwin & Barneby leaf with extrafloral nectaries between leaflets (Lima et al. 538). Photo credits A, B, E, F, H A Lima C JG Rando D F Logan G RT Queiroz https://rubens-plantasdobrasil.blogspot.com/.

Figure 33.

Distribution of Senna based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 34.

Generic relationships in tribe Caesalpinieae. The most likely positions of the unsampled genera Stenodrepanum and Hultholia are indicated with dashed lines [following Gagnon et al. (2019)]. For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 35.

Flowers of CaesalpinieaeATaraspinosa Britton & Rose, Peru, Ancash (Hughes et al. 3043) BCenostigmapluviosum(DC.)Gagnon & G.P. Lewisvar.pluviosum, Bolivia, Santa Cruz (Wood et al. 26552) CCaesalpiniabahamensis Lam., Cuba (Lewis 1853) DHultholiamimosoides (Lam.) Gagnon & G.P. Lewis, India EPomariaburchellii (DC.) B.B. Simpson & G.P. Lewis, Botswana Ghanzi district FErythrostemoncoccineus (G.P. Lewis & J.L. Contr.) Gagnon & G.P. Lewis, Mexico, Oaxaca (Lewis et al. 1802) GCaesalpiniapulcherrima (L.) Sw., Honduras HErythrostemonmelanadenius (Rose) Gagnon & G.P. Lewis, Mexico, Oaxaca (Hughes et al. 2091) IPterolobiumstellatum (Forssk.) Brenan, Africa JGuilandinabonduc L., India KGelrebiatrothaei (Harms) Gagnon & G.P. Lewis, Tanzania. Photo credits A E Gagnon B, F–H CE Hughes C GP Lewis D VR Vinayaraj, India Biodiversity Portal (https://indiabiodiversity.org/group/wild_orchids_of_india/observation/show/335155), the basionym of HultholiamimosoidesE O Bourquin, Flora of Zimbabwe (https://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/speciesdata/image-display.php?species_id=127200&image_id=6) I P Van Wyk J M Sanjappa K PJ Cribb.

Figure 36.

Fruits of CaesalpinieaeAHererolandiapearsonii (L. Bolus) Gagnon & G.P. Lewis, Namibia, Sesriem Canyon BHaematoxylumbrasiletto H. Karst., Mexico (Lewis 2057) CLophocarpiniaaculeatifolia (Burkart) Burkart, Paraguay, (Fortunato 8650) DHoffmannseggiaarequipensis Ulibarri, Peru, Arequipa, (Hughes et al. 2342) EBalsamocarponbrevifolium Clos, Chile (Baxter et al. DCI 1859) FZuccagniapunctata Cav., Argentina, Mendoza GCordeauxiaedulis Hemsl., Somalia HErythrostemoncoccineus (G.P. Lewis & J.L. Contr.) Gagnon & G.P. Lewis, Mexico, Oaxaca (Lewis et al. 1802) IPaubrasiliaechinata (Lam.) Gagnon, H.C. Lima & G.P. Lewis, Brazil JLibidibiaparaguariensis (Parodi) G.P. Lewis, Bolivia, Santa Cruz (Hughes 2475) KCoulteriamollis Kunth, Guatemala (Lewis et al. 1714) LCenostigmapluviosumvar.cabralianum (G.P. Lewis) Gagnon & G.P. Lewis, Brazil (Lewis et al. 2019) MPomariajamesii (Torr. & A. Gray) Walp., USA. Photo credits A AA Dreyer B, I, K, L GP Lewis C RH Fortunato D, H, J CE Hughes E P Baxter F Italo Specogna, Flora mendocina (http://www.floramendocina.com.ar/clase_3/zuccagnia_punctata_p9558.html) G M Thulin M P Alexander, SEINet Arizona Chapter (https://swbiodiversity.org/seinet/imagelib/imgdetails.php?imgid=253949).

Figure 37.

Fruits of the CaesalpinieaeAGelrebiarubra (Engl.) Gagnon & G.P. Lewis, Namibia BMoullavaspicata (Dalzell ex Wight) Nicolson, India, Maharashtra CHultholiamimosoides (Lam.) Gagnon & G.P. Lewis, India DGuilandinabonduc L., Madagascar EPterolobiumstellatum (Forssk.) Brenan, Zimbabwe FTicantosinensis (Hemsley) R. Clark & Gagnon, China (Clark 415) GBiancaeadecapetala (Roth) O. Deg., Peru, Ancash (Hughes et al. 2227) HMezoneuronkauaiense (H. Mann) Hillebr. IMezoneuronandamanicum Prain, Thailand (Clark 251). Photo credits A Dave U, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/41085094) B P Awale, Flowers of India (http://www.flowersofindia.net/) C VR Vinayaraj, India Biodiversity Portal (https://indiabiodiversity.org/observation/show/335158), the basionym of HultholiamimosoidesD GP Lewis E BT Wursten, Flora of Zimbabwe (https://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/speciesdata/image-display.php?species_id=127190&image_id=1) F, I P Suksathan G CE Hughes H D Eickhoff, https://www.flickr.com/photos/dweickhoff/4822012867/in/photostream/.

Figure 38.

Vegetative traits of the CaesalpinieaeAHoffmannseggiaminor (Phil.) Ulibarri, Bolivia BHererolandiapearsonii (L. Bolus) Gagnon & G.P. Lewis, Namibia, Sesriem Canyon CMoullavaspicata (Dalzell ex Wight) Nicolson, India, Maharastra DCordeauxiaedulis Hemsl., undersurface of leaflets showing glands, Somalia EPomariaaustrotexana B.B. Simpson, USA, Texas F Small tree of Erythrostemonnicaraguensis (G.P. Lewis) Gagnon & G.P. Lewis, Nicaragua, Esteli (Hawkins et al. 4) G Leopard bark of Libidibiaparaguariensis (D. Parodi) G.P. Lewis, Bolivia, Santa Cruz (Hughes 2475) H Lenticelled bark of Erythrostemonnicaraguensis (G.P. Lewis) Gagnon & G.P. Lewis, Nicaragua, Esteli (Hawkins et al. 4) I Young flush of leaves of Cenostigmapluviosumvar.intermedium (G.P. Lewis) Gagnon & G.P. Lewis, Brazil, Bahia (Lima et al. 7901) J Fluted trunk of Haematoxylumbrasiletto H. Karst., Mexico, Oaxaca, (Hughes 1947) K Prickles on woody protuberances on a young trunk of Paubrasiliaechinata (Lam.) Gagnon, H.C. Lima & G.P. Lewis, Brazil, Bahia (Lima et al. 7909) L Recurved spines of Biancaeadecapetala (Roth) O. Deg., Peru, Ancash, (Hughes et al. 3055). Photo credits A GP Lewis B AA Dreyer C Shivaprakash, iNaturalist (https://inaturalist.ca/observations/81864757) D M Thulin E WR Carr F–H, J CE Hughes I, K, L E Gagnon.

Figure 39.

Distribution of Stuhlmannia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 40.

Distribution of Cordeauxia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 41.

Distribution of Cenostigma based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 42.

Distribution of Libidibia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 43.

Distribution of Balsamocarpon based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 44.

Distribution of Zuccagnia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 45.

Distribution of Hoffmannseggia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 46.

Distribution of Stenodrepanum based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 47.

Distribution of Erythrostemon based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 48.

Distribution of Pomaria based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 49.

Distribution of Arquita based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 50.

Distribution of Hererolandia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 51.

Distribution of Haematoxylum based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 52.

Distribution of Lophocarpinia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 53.

Distribution of Caesalpinia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. The distribution of Caesalpiniapulcherrima in Sonora and Guatemala is based on specimen records that morphologically appear to be non-cultivated, but the exact native distribution of the species remains difficult to ascertain because it has been widely cultivated for a long time. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 54.

Distribution of Denisophytum based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 55.

Distribution of Paubrasilia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 56.

Distribution of Coulteria based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 57.

Distribution of Tara based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 58.

Distribution of Gelrebia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 59.

Distribution of Guilandina based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 60.

Distribution of Hultholia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 61.

Distribution of Moullava based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 62.

Distribution of Biancaea based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records of native specimens. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 63.

Distribution of Pterolobium based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 64.

Distribution of Mezoneuron based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 65.

Distribution of Ticanto based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 66.

Generic relationships in tribe Schizolobieae. For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 67.

Variation in tree form and bark among genera of tribe SchizolobieaeA, BSchizolobiumamazonicum Huber ex Ducke, tree to 20 m, Veracruz, Mexico (Hughes 1880) C young sapling of Schizolobiumamazonicum showing typical ‘tree fern habit’ with large leaves and green bark DPeltophorumdubium (Spreng.) Taub., cultivated as an ornamental, central plaza in Saipina, Santa Cruz, Bolivia (Hughes 2461) E bark of Peltophorumafricanum Sond. FParkinsoniaperuviana C.E. Hughes, Daza & Hawkins, small tree in dry thorn scrub in the upper Marañon valley, Peru (Hughes 2213) G green shoot and axillary thorns, Parkinsoniaandicola (Griseb.) Varjão & Mansano, Chuquisaca, Bolivia (Hughes 2313) H green bark of Parkinsoniapraecox (Ruiz & Pavon ex Hook.) Hawkins, Oaxaca, Mexico (Hughes 1298) I tree of Parkinsoniaafricana Sond., South Africa J, K small tree of Heteroflorumsclerocarpum M. Sousa showing typical low forked branching habit, spreading crown and pale metallic grey bark with storied protuberences, Guerrero, Mexico (Hughes 1845) L, MConzattiamultiflora Standl., showing typical umbrella crown habit and pale grey metallic bark in succulent-rich seasonally dry forest, Puebla, Mexico (Hughes 1824) N small tree of Colvillearacemosa Bojer, Madagascar (Du Puy 102) O bottle tree of Delonixfloribunda (Baill.) Capuron, south-western Madagascar (Bruneau 1405) P twisted and stunted growth form of Delonixpumila Du Puy, Phillipson & R. Rabev. in south-western Madagascar (Du Puy 456) Q small tree of Delonixregia (Bojer) Raf. with a spreading crown, flowering preceding or coinciding with leaf flush, N Madagascar (Du Puy 578). Photo credits A, B, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M CE Hughes C A Bayer Tamayo File:Tambor (Schizolobiumparahyba) (14101065740).jpg - Wikimedia Commons E W Coville (https://plantnet.org/) I Wi Boshoff http://hdl.handle.net/11660/5647N, P, Q D Du Puy O A Bruneau.

Figure 68.

Flowers of tribe SchizolobieaeASchizolobiumamazonicum Huber ex Ducke, Veracruz, Mexico (Hughes 1880) BPeltophorumdubium (Spreng.) Taub., Santa Cruz, Bolivia (Hughes 2461) CBusseaperrieri R. Vig., western Madagascar DParkinsoniaaculeata L., Zacapa, Guatemala (Hughes 1222) EParkinsoniaflorida (Benth. ex A. Gray) S. Watson, Sonora, Mexico (Hughes 1562) FConzattiamultiflora Standl., Puebla, Mexico (Hughes 931) GColvillearacemosa Bojer, south-western Madagascar (Bruneau 1403) HDelonixregia (Bojer) Raf., northern Madagascar (Du Puy 578) IDelonixleucanthasubsp.gracilis Du Puy, Phillipson & R. Rabev., Madagascar (Du Puy 87). Photo credits A, B, D–F CE Hughes C feno, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/103942022) G A Bruneau H, I D Du Puy.

Figure 69.

Distribution of Schizolobium based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 70.

Fruits of tribe SchizolobieaeA, B dehisced fruits of Schizolobiumamazonicum Huber ex Ducke showing the papery endocarp surrounding the single seed, Veracruz, Mexico (Hughes 1880) CPeltophorumdubium (Spreng.) Taub., Chiapas, Mexico (Hughes 1685) DPeltophorumpterocarpum (DC.) Backer ex K. Heyne, India EBusseasakalava Du Puy & R. Rabev., Madagascar (Du Puy 248) F dehisced fruit of Busseaperrieri R. Vig., north-west Madagascar G ripe, tardily dehiscent fruits of Parkinsoniaandicola (Griseb.) Varjão & Mansano, Chuquisaca, Bolivia (Hughes 2619) HParkinsoniaflorida (Benth. ex A. Gray) S. Watson, Sonora, Mexico (Hughes 1562) I ripe indehiscent fruits of Parkinsoniaperuviana C.E. Hughes, Daza & Hawkins, La Libertad, Peru (Eastwood 82) JConzattiamultiflora Standl., Puebla, Mexico (Hughes 1815) K–M indehiscent ripe fruits of Heteroflorumsclerocarpum M. Sousa, Guerrero, Mexico (Hughes 1845) LHeteroflorumsclerocarpum Guerrero, Mexico (Hughes 1845) showing a legume that has been broken apart manually NDelonixboiviniana (Baill.) Capuron, Madagascar (D Du Puy 301) ODelonixedule (H. Perrier) Babineau & Bruneau, ripe fruits, Madagascar (Du Puy 449) PColvillearacemosa Bojer, ripe dehiscing fruits, Madagascar (Du Puy 304). Photo credits A–C, G–M CE Hughes D D Valke File:Peltophorumpterocarpum (2745008096).jpg - Wikimedia Commons E, N–P D Du Puy F Andry.A.R, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/28896062).

Figure 71.

Distribution of Bussea based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 72.

Distribution of Peltophorum based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 73.

Distribution of Parkinsonia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records [excluding P.aculeata whose native range remains uncertain, and which is weedy and invasive in many areas of Neotropics and elsewhere – see Hawkins et al. (2007)]. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 74.

Distribution of Conzattia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 75.

Distribution of Heteroflorum based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 76.

Distribution of Colvillea based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 77.

Distribution of Delonix based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 78.

Generic relationships in tribe Sclerolobieae. For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 79.

Vegetative morphology of SclerolobieaeAMoldenhaweranutans L.P. Queiroz, G.P. Lewis & Allkin shrubby individual in a Restinga sand dune field BDiptychandraaurantiaca (Mart.) Tul. tree in a Caatinga seasonally dry setting CArapatiellapsilophylla (Harms) R.S. Cowan flowering tree DTachigaliamplifolia (Ducke) Barneby large, buttressed tree EJacqueshuberiapurpurea Ducke pinnate stipule F leaf G detail of a leaf HTachigalirugosa (Mart. ex Benth.) Zarucchi & Pipoly leaf with characteristic inversely symmetrical leaflets I, JTachigali sp. details of leaf domatia K, L variation in stipule shape. Photo credits A, C, E–L D Cardoso B RT Queiroz https://rubens-plantasdobrasil.blogspot.com/D I Huamantupa.

Figure 80.

Floral morphology of SclerolobieaeAMoldenhaweralushnathiana Yakovlev highly branched inflorescence BMoldenhaweranutans L.P. Queiroz, G.P. Lewis & Allkin flowering branch, showing the typical navicular leaves with rust-coloured leaflet abaxial surface C flowers DDiptychandraaurantiaca (Mart.) Tul. flowering branch E inflorescence FArapatiellapsilophylla (Harms) R.S. Cowan inflorescences G flowers HJacqueshuberiapurpurea Ducke flower ITachigalimacrostachya Huber candelabrum-like inflorescences JTachigaliamarumayu Huamantupa, H.C. Lima & D.B.O.S. Cardoso densely paniculate inflorescences KTachigaliparaensis (Huber) Barneby radially symmetrical flowers LTachigalipaniculata Aubl. bilaterally symmetrical flowers MTachigalimacrostachya bilaterally symmetrical flowers. Photo credits A LP Queiroz B, C, F, G, I, K–M D Cardoso J I Huamantupa D, E RT Queiroz https://rubens-plantasdobrasil.blogspot.com/H M Cohn-Haft.

Figure 81.

Fruit morphology of SclerolobieaeAMoldenhawerapolysperma (Vell.) Stellfeld old fruit valves BDiptychandraaurantiaca (Mart.) Tul. fruits C fruit opened showing the characteristic winged seed DArapatiellapsilophylla (Harms) R.S. Cowan immature fruit EJacqueshuberiapurpurea Ducke immature fruits FTachigalimacrostachya Huber immature fruits GTachigalirugosa (Mart. ex Benth.) Zarucchi & Pipoly mature fruits. Photo credits A C Vivas B, C RT Queiroz https://rubens-plantasdobrasil.blogspot.com/D–F D Cardoso G LP Queiroz.

Figure 82.

Distribution of Moldenhawera based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 83.

Distribution of Diptychandra based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 84.

Distribution of Arapatiella based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 85.

Distribution of Jacqueshuberia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 86.

Distribution of Tachigali based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 87.

Generic relationships in tribe Dimorphandreae. For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 88.

Leaves and inflorescences of tribe DimorphandreaeAMoraparaensis (Ducke) Ducke (Simon 1663) BStachyothyrsusstaudtii Harms CBurkeaafricana Hook. DDimorphandramediocris Ducke (Simon 4209) EDimorphandracuprea Sprague & Sandwith (Farroñay 1804) FDimorphandraparviflora Spruce ex Benth. (Simon 1176) GDimorphandramollis Benth. HDimorphandrapennigera Tul. IDimorphandraignea Ducke JDimorphandravernicosa Spreng. ex Benth. (Cardoso 3279) KBurkeaafricanaLDimorphandragardneriana Tul. (Silva 21). Photo credits A, D, F, G MF Simon B Nicolas Texier (CC-BY-NC-ND-3.0) C AR Lecuona (CC-BY-NC-4.0) E, H, I F Javier Farroñay Pacaya J D Cardoso K AE van Wyk and S Malan L G Sousa da Silva.

Figure 89.

Flowers and fruits of the tribe DimorphandreaeADimorphandracuprea Sprague & Sandwith (Farroñay 1804) BDimorphandrapennigera Tul. CDimorphandravernicosa Spreng. ex Benth. (Cardoso 3279) DDimorphandraignea Ducke EStachyothyrsusstaudtii Harms FDimorphandragardneriana Tul. (Simon 2715) GDimorphandramacrostachya Benth. (Silva 540) HDimorphandracuprea Sprague & Sandwith (Farroñay 1804) IStachyothyrsusstaudtii Harms JBurkeaafricana Hook. K–MMoraparaensis (Ducke) Ducke (K, LCosta 28). Photo credits A, B, D, H F Javier Farroñay Pacaya C D Cardoso E Flora of the world F MF Simon G G Sousa da Silva I N Texier (CC-BY-NC-ND-3.0) J C Sydes (CC-BY-NC-4.0) K, L J Barbosa Pedrosa Costa M A Rocha Dantas.

Figure 90.

Distribution of Dimorphandra based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 91.

Distribution of Mora based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 92.

Distribution of Stachyothyrsus based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 93.

Distribution of Burkea based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 94.

Generic membership and phylogenetic position of tribe Campsiandreae. For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 95.

Flower, fruit and vegetative characters of tribe CampsiandreaeA foliage and fruits, Campsiandracomosa Benth., Brazil B compound inflorescence, Campsiandraangustifolia Spruce ex Benth., Peru C fruit and seed, Campsiandralaurifolia Benth., cultivated Rio de Janeiro Botanic Gardens, Brazil D inflorescence and foliage, Campsiandra sp., Amazonas, Brazil E–IDiniziajueirana facao G.P. Lewis & G.S. Siqueira, Reserva Natural Vale, Espírito Santo, Brazil E foliage and fruits F trunk and crown of mature tree G inflorescences H mature fruits (hand for scale) I rough bark of trunk. Photo credits A D Cardoso B T Pennington D M Falção E, G, I D Folli C, F, H GP Lewis.

Figure 96.

Distribution of Campsiandra based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 97.

Distribution of Dinizia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 98.

Generic membership and phylogenetic position of tribe Erythrophleeae. For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 99.

Habit, bark and foliage of ErythrophleeaeAErythrophleumfordii Oliv. at Hùng Temple, Vietnam B bark of Erythrophleumcouminga Baill. in Madagascar CPachyelasmatessmannii (Harms) Harms in Congolian rainforest D, E, HErythrophleumchlorostachys Baill. D rugous bark E tree in northern Australian savannas H foliage FErythrophleumlasianthum Corbishley foliage GErythrophleumsuaveolens (Guill. & Perr.) Brenan foliage and terminal inflorescences, Ntumbachusi falls, Zambia. Photo credits A Hungda (https://tropical.theferns.info/image.php?id=Erythrophleum+fordii) B Solofo Eric Rakotoarisoa, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/42581094) C Bart Wursten (https://www.flickr.com/photos/zimbart/8212743587/in/photolist-dvJsxn-dvJnwi) D, E, H G Mahajan (https://alchetron.com/Erythrophleum-chlorostachys) F JMK (https://wikiwand.com/en/Erythrophleum_lasianthum) G MG Bingham (https://malawiflora.com/speciesdata/image-display.php?species_id=126540&image_id=8).

Figure 100.

Distribution of Erythrophleum based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 101.

Tribe Erythrophleeae inflorescences, fruits and seeds A–D Spicate racemes of species of Erythrophleum with small flowers, erect sepals and petals and hairy stamen filaments AE.suaveolens (Guill. & Perr.) Brenan with a visiting fly BE.chlorostachys (F. Muell.) Baill. (Ironwood) C, DE.lasianthum Corbishley E–I Fruits and seeds E dehisced fruits of ErythrophleumsuaveolensF, G ripe fruits of ErythrophleumlasianthumH, I dispersed fruits of Pachyelasmatessmannii (Harms) Harms on the forest floor, showing the flat valves and raised margins. Photo credits: A AlkalIn (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flowers_of_Erythrophleum_suaveolens.jpg) B T Harley (https://territorynativeplants.com.au/erythrophleum-chlorostachys-ironwood) C, D SAplants E Oliver Haumann, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/60428121) F, G JMK (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Erythrophleum_lasianthum,_loof_en_peule,_Manie_van_der_Schijff_BT,_a.jpg) H B Wursten (https://flickr.com/photos/zimbart/8212726705) I T Stévart (https://tropicos.org/ImageDownload.aspx?imageid=100336252).

Figure 102.

Distribution of Pachyelasma based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 103.

Generic relationships in the Adenanthera clade (tribe Mimoseae). For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 104.

Habit and growth form in the Adenanthera clade AXyliaxylocarpavar.kerrii (Craib & Hutch.) I.C. Nielsen scaly bark BXyliatorreana Brenan canopy CPentaclethramacroloba (Willd.) Kuntze trunk showing buttresses DTetrapleuratetraptera (Schumach. & Thonn.) Taub. canopy (Harris 9659) EAmblygonocarpusandongensis (Welw. ex Oliv.) Exell & Torre pale grey, scaly bark (Catarino 2067) FPseudoprosopisgilletii (De Wild.) Villiers liana with leaves and lignified tendrils (Texier 1558) GAdenantherapavonina L. thin scaly bark H habit IAmblygonocarpusandongensis (Welw. ex Oliv.) Exell & Torre growing in savanna (Coates Palgrave M806). Photo credits A Dechaphaetkrathok B F du Randt C D DeMelo D DJ Harris E L Catarino F N Texier G, H Shelbyfarmer I M Coates Palgrave.

Figure 105.

Flowers and inflorescences in the Adenanthera clade AAdenantherapavonina L. inflorescence B, CTetrapleuratetraptera (Schumach. & Thonn.) Taub. (Harris 9663) B reflexed petals and white filaments on the flowers C racemose inflorescence DXyliahoffmannii (Vatke) Drake umbellate inflorescence (Ratovoson 838) ECalpocalyxklainei Pierre ex Harms inflorescence (Texia 976) FPseudoprosopisbampsiana Lisowski flower detail showing pseudopedicels (Bidault 2515) G, HPentaclethramacroloba (Willd.) Kuntze G inflorescences congested at the ends of branches H close-up of the inflorescence showing the long filamentous staminodes. Photo credits A CheongWeei Gan B, C DJ Harris D F Ratovoson E N Texia F E Bidault G, H D Cardoso.

Figure 106.

Fruits and seeds in the Adenanthera clade AAdenantherapavonina L. dehisced fruits with exposed persistent red seeds BAmblygonocarpusandongensis (Welw. ex Oliv.) Exell & Torre Indehiscent four-angled fruits (Catarino 2067) CPseudoprosopisfischeri Harms young fruit (Bingham 8055) DXyliaxylocarpavar.kerrii (Craib & Hutch.) I.C.Nielsen young dolabriform pod ETetrapleuratetraptera (Schumach. & Thonn.) Taub. immature winged, indehiscent pod (Harris 9659) FPentaclethramacrophylla Benth. pod and recalcitrant seeds G, HCalpocalyxngouniensis Pellegr. woody valves from dehisced pod (Texier 695). Photo credits A Shelbyfarmer B L Catarino C MG Bingham D B Peroth E DJ Harris 9659 F CJ Porto, Fundación Tierra Ibérica G H N Texier.

Figure 107.

Distribution of Pentaclethra based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 108.

Distribution of Tetrapleura based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 109.

Distribution of Amblygonocarpus based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 110.

Distribution of Adenanthera based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 111.

Distribution of Pseudoprosopis based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 112.

Distribution of Xylia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 113.

Distribution of Calpocalyx based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 114.

Phylogenetic position of Sympetalandra and Chidlowia in tribe Mimoseae. For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 115.

Sympetalandraunijuga (Airy Shaw) Steenis A bipinnate leaves with opposite pinnae and opposite leaflets B fruit, Malaysia (Madani 83436) C flowers in bud and early anthesis D slender, branched inflorescences E close-up of flower. Photo credits A, C–E Digital Flora of the Philippines (Pelser et al. 2011) B Naturalis Biodiversity Center, https://medialib.naturalis.nl/file/id/L.2027025/format/large (CC0-1.0).

Figure 116.

Distribution of Sympetalandra based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 117.

Chidlowiasanguinea Hoyle A tree with steep buttresses and twisted trunk B bark greyish to brownish with many lenticels, inner bark pink to reddish brown C parapinnate leaves with 4–6 pairs of leaflets D inflorescence, long and pendulous panicle E tip of inflorescence showing multiple buds F deep red flowers with long stamens and style G fruit, with coriaceous woody valves H dehisced fruit showing under-developed seed remnants. Photo credits A–C C Jongkind (WAG) D–H X van der Burgt (K).

Figure 118.

Distribution of Chidlowia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 119.

Generic relationships in the Entada clade (tribe Mimoseae). For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 120.

Entada clade variation in habit AEntadarheedei Spreng., huge woody liana, India BEntadawahlbergii Harv., thin woody climber in fruit, Benin CEntadaleptostachya Harms, scandent shrub in fruit, Madagascar DEntadaburkei (Benth.) S.A. O’Donnell & G.P. Lewis, erect shrub, South Africa EEntadaabyssinica Steud. ex A. Rich., small tree, Rwanda FEntadaelephantina (Burch.) S.A. O’Donnell & G.P. Lewis, geoxylic suffrutex, South Africa GAubrevilleaplatycarpa Pellegr., large tree with plank buttresses, Guinea HPiptadeniastrumafricanum (Hook.f.) Brenan, large tree with aliform buttresses, Guinea IP.africanum, large tree in forest canopy, Sierra Leone. Photo credits A Shiwali Samant, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/58810243) B M Schmidt, Dressler et al. (2014)C merveille, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/102007815) D pete_leroux, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/184645340) E jordivanoort, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/31303989) F AE van Wyk G–I X van der Burgt.

Figure 121.

Entada clade variation in foliage and flowers AEntadarheedei Spreng., young bipinnate leaf terminating in a bifurcate tendril (modified terminal pinnae pair), India BEntadatuberosa R. Vig., bipinnate leaf terminating in a bifurcate, thickened tendril (modified terminal pinnae pair), and rachis and rachillae terminating in a yellowish glandular mucro, Madagascar CEntadamannii (Oliv.) Tisser., oblong leaflets with rounded apices and midvein positioned centrally, Republic of Congo DEntadaobliqua (Burtt Davy) S.A. O’Donnell & G.P. Lewis, asymmetric leaflets with acute apices and midvein positioned closer to distal margin, South Africa EAubrevilleaplatycarpa Pellegr., oblong-obovate leaflets with emarginate apices, Guinea FPiptadeniastrumafricanum (Hook.f.) Brenan, finely divided bipinnate leaves, Benin GE.rheedei, subsessile flowers with greenish-yellow corollas and cream-coloured stamen filaments, India HEntadastuhlmannii (Taub.) Harms, spiciform raceme of flowers with deep red corolla and stamen filaments, Mozambique IP.africanum, spiciform raceme of flowers with yellowish-white corolla (base of petals tinged pinkish) and stamen filaments, and red anthers with a white apical anther gland, Republic of Congo JP.africanum, terminal panicles of spiciform racemes, Republic of Congo. Photo credits A Shiwalee Sawant, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/58810126) B Andry.A.R, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/30264619) C DJ Harris, Dressler et al. (2014)D Andrew Hankey, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/3213785) E X van der Burgt F G Georgen, Dressler et al. (2014)G Dinesh Valke, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/133409879) H © Warren McCleland, all rights reserved, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/152390385) I–J X van der Burgt.

Figure 122.

Entada clade variation in fruits and seeds AEntadarheedei Spreng., mature, gigantic, torulose, slightly curved, segmented craspedium with woody endocarp, India BEntadagigas (L.) Fawc. & Rendle, mature, laxly spirally twisted, segmented craspedium, Costa Rica CEntadaspiralis Ridl., immature, tightly spirally twisted, segmented craspedium, Singapore DEntadaafricana Guill. & Perr., mature, segmented craspedia, distinctly umbonate over seeds, with exocarp peeling away, Togo EEntadapolystachya (L.) DC., mature, segmented craspedia, slightly umbonate over seeds, with exocarp already shed, Costa Rica FEntadadolichorrhachis Brenan, mature, small, torulose, slightly curved, segmented craspedium, Zambia GEntadaburkei (Benth.) S.A. O’Donnell & G.P. Lewis, immature craspedia, not segmented, South Africa HE.burkei, mature craspedia, not segmented, entire valves breaking away from replum, exocarp peeling away, South Africa IEntadagoetzei (Harms) Harms, immature, elongate craspedia, not segmented, distinctly umbonate over seeds, Mozambique JAubrevilleaplatycarpa Pellegr., papery, indehiscent fruits with twisted bases (holotype A Aubreville 990, MNHN-P-P00418246), Côte d’Ivoire KPiptadeniastrumafricanum (Hook.f.) Brenan, coriaceous pods, dehiscent along single suture, Democratic Republic of Congo LP.africanum, flattened, oblong seeds surrounded by broad, membranous wing, with funicle attached at middle of long axis of seed, Uganda ME.gigas, large, laterally compressed, cordate seed without pleurogram, collected in beach wrack, USA NE.rheedei, large, laterally compressed, globular seeds without pleurogram, South Africa OE.africana, laterally compressed, elliptic seeds with closed pleurogram, Togo PE.burkei, globular seed without pleurogram, South Africa. Scale bars: 1 cm (M); 2 cm (N); 5 mm (O, P). Photo credits A Dinesh Valke, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/159405372) B Pedro Blanco, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/181372721) C Cerlin Ng CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 D B Eichhorn, Dressler et al. (2014)E Marvin López M, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/181531329) F W McCleland, Dressler et al. (2014)G P van Wyk; H tjeerd, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/64689073) I BT Wursten, Hyde et al. (2022)J MNHN (2022) (CC BY 4.0) K P Latham, Dressler et al. (2014)L David Bygott, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/62615168) M Robb Deans, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/2611187) N Ricky Taylor, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/44440338) O B Eichhorn, Dressler et al. (2014)P Joseph Heymans, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/123571608).

Figure 123.

Distribution of Entada based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 124.

Distribution of Aubrevillea based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 125.

Distribution of Piptadeniastrum based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 126.

Phylogenetic relationships across the grade Newtonia of four genera subtending the core mimosoid clade in tribe Mimoseae. For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 127.

Habit, habitats, inflorescences, and fruits of Newtonia and allies A small tree of Anonychiumafricanum (Guill. & Perr.) C.E. Hughes & G.P. Lewis in Senegal, West Africa B small twisted treelet of Plathymeniareticulata Benth. in savanna grasslands (Cerrado) in eastern Bolivia C large, buttressed tree base of Fillaeopsisdiscophora Harms in tropical wet forest, Ebo, Cameroon D large buttressed tree base of Newtoniabuchananii (Baker f.) G.C.C. Gilbert & Boutique in semi-evergreen forest in Mozambique E spicate inflorescence of AnonychiumafricanumF spicate inflorescences of Plathymeniareticulata, eastern Bolivia G spicate inflorescences of Fillaeopsisdiscophora, Gabon H spicate inflorescences of Newtoniabuchananii in Malawi I indehiscent pods of Anonychiumafricanum collected as livestock feed in Burkina Faso, West Africa J tardily dehiscent pods with chartaceous or weakly coriaceous valves of Plathymeniareticulata, eastern Bolivia K pod valves and papery endocarp packets surrounding seeds of Plathymeniareticulata, Bahia, Brazil L tardily dehiscent pods with chartaceous valves of Fillaeopsisdiscophora in tropical wet forest in Mayombe, Congo (Brazzaville) M large winged seeds of Fillaeopsisdiscophora in tropical wet forest in Ambam, Cameroon N fruits and winged seeds of Newtoniabuchananii in cultivation in South Africa. Photo credits A S Christensen www.westafricanplants.senckenberg.deB, F, J, K, N CE Hughes C, L, M X van der Burgt D Stefaan Dondeyne E M Arbonnier https://agritrop.cirad.fr/G E Bidault, Missouri Botanical Garden, http://legacy.tropicos.org/Image/100618759H G Baumann www.westafricanplants.senckenberg.deI M Schmidt www.westafricanplants.senckenberg.de.

Figure 128.

Distribution of Anonychium based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 129.

Distribution of Plathymenia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 130.

Distribution of Fillaeopsis based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 131.

Distribution of Newtonia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 132.

Phylogeny showing the relationships among Cylicodiscus and the genera of the Prosopis clade and the Neltuma clade, the first-branching lineages of the core mimosoid clade of tribe Mimoseae. Substantial gene tree conflict is associated with the relationships of Cylicodiscus which is separated from the Prosopis clade by a very short branch (see inset for exact branch lengths printed above branches). For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 133.

Habit, leaves, flowers and fruits of Cylicodiscus in wet tropical forest in west Africa A, BCylicodiscusgabunensis Harms, large canopy emergent tree C mature tree trunk with large knee-like buttresses D immature understory sapling showing sharp-pointed woody protuberances on stem E leaves showing leaflets with conspicuous drip tips F inflorescences G strap-like legumes (ca. 1 m long) showing follicular dehiscence H canopy-emergent tree crown with long strap-like pendulous fruits I 12 cm long winged seeds. Photo credits A, B, D, E, G W Hawthorne C X van der Burgt F, H, I R Ndonda Makemba.

Figure 134.

Distribution of Cylicodiscus based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 135.

Habit, armature, inflorescences, and fruits of genera of the Prosopis clade A Small tree of Indopiptadeniaoudhensis (Brandis) Brenan in disturbed seasonal monsoon vegetation in Uttar Pradesh, northern India B, C scattered internodal sharply tipped woody protuberances on trunk and branches of young Indopiptadeniaoudhensis trees in Uttar Pradesh, northern India D trees of Prosopiscineraria (L.) Druce lopped for animal fodder on the arid fringes of the Thar desert, Rajasthan, India E internodal prickles on young shoot of Prosopisfarcta (Banks & Sol.) J.F. Macbride F inflorescences of Indipiptadeniaoudhensis in Uttar Pradesh, northern India G inflorescences of ProsopisfarctaH unripe, plano-compressed fruits of Indopiptadeniaoudhensis in Uttar Pradesh, northern India I indehiscent fruits with a thickened mesocarp of Prosopisfarcta. Photo credits A–C, F, H O Bajpai and L Babu Chaudhary D CE Hughes E Zeynel Cebeci https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Prosopis_farcta_-_Syrian_mesquite_01.JPGG Eitan Ferman https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosopis_farcta#/media/Datei:Prosopis_farcta,_flower.jpgI Zeynel Cebeci https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosopis_farcta#/media/File:Prosopis_farcta_01.JPG.

Figure 136.

Distribution of Indopiptadenia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 137.

Distribution of Prosopis based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 138.

Habit and armature of the genera of the Neltuma clade A shrub of Xerocladiaviridiramis Taub. in the Namib desert, Namibia B small tree of Strombocarpatamarugo (Phil.) C.E Hughes & G.P. Lewis, on the Pampa del Tamarugal in the Atacama desert, northern Chile C shrubby treelet of Strombocarpaferox (Griseb.) C.E. Hughes & G.P. Lewis in seasonally dry tropical scrubland in southern Bolivia D small tree of Neltumakuntzei (Harms ex C.E.O. Kuntze) C.E. Hughes & G.P. Lewis in seasonally dry tropical forest in southern Bolivia E small tree of Neltumajuliflora (Sw.) Raf. in seasonally dry tropical scrubland on deep black vertisol soil in central Nicaragua F straight cylindrical spinescent shoots of the sub-aphyllous NeltumakuntzeiG short recurved stipular spines and unijugate leaves of XerocladiaviridiramisH slender pale whitish stipular spines, unijugate leaves, and globose to ovoid-elliptic capitula of Strombocarpastrombulifera (Lam.) A. Gray I axillary nodal spine of Neltumajuliflora, central Nicaragua. Photo credits A H Kolberg, Plants of Namibia https://herbaria.plants.ox.ac.uk/bol/NamibiaB O Whaley C–F, I CE Hughes G GN Dreber https://www.southernafricanplants.net/plantdata_sub.php?Mspec_ID=6570H Guillermo Debandi, iNaturalist (https://guatemala.inaturalist.org/photos/1502506).

Figure 139.

Inflorescences and fruits of the genera of the Neltuma clade A capitulum of Xerocladiaviridiramis Taub. B spike of Strombocarpapalmeri (S. Watson) C.E. Hughes & G.P. Lewis C spike of Strombocarpatamarugo (Phil.) C.E Hughes & G.P. Lewis D erect spike of Neltumarubriflora (Hassl.) C.E. Hughes & G.P. Lewis E pendulous spikes of Neltumaflexuosa (DC.) C.E. Hughes & G.P. Lewis, Antofagasta, Chile F spikes of Neltumalaevigata (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Britton & Rose, south-central Mexico G indehiscent pods of Neltumalaevigata, south-central Mexico H unripe winged monospermous fruits of Xerocladiaviridiramis in the Namib desert, Namibia I ripe fruits of Strombocarpatamarugo, Atacama desert, northern Chile J spirally coiled indehiscent ‘screw-bean’ legumes of Strombocarpastrombulifera (Lam.) A. Gray. Photo credits A, H H Kolberg, Plants of Namibia https://herbaria.plants.ox.ac.uk/bol/namibia) B, F, G CE Hughes C, I O Whaley D X Enboc- Encontro de Botânicos do Centro Oeste E P Hechenleitner J Dick Culbert.

Figure 140.

Distribution of Xerocladia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 141.

Distribution of Strombocarpa based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 142.

Distribution of Neltuma based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 143.

Generic relationships in the Dichrostachys clade (tribe Mimoseae). Note that the non-monophyly of Dichrostachys and Alantsilodendron has been simplified in this figure (see Suppl. material 2). For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 144.

Habit and growth forms of genera of the Dichrostachys clade A herbaceous to weakly woody thicket of shrubby Neptuniaplena (L.) Benth. in seasonally inundated ruderal habitat, Bolivia (Särkinen 2159) B, C medium-sized to large trees of Lemurodendroncapuronii Villiers & P. Guinet, north-western Madagascar (Koenen 429) D small tree of Leucaenamatudae (Zárate) C.E. Hughes in seasonally dry tropical forest, Guerrero, Mexico (Hughes 2153) E shrub of Kanaloakahoolawensis Lorence & K.R. Wood cultivated, National Tropical Botanical Garden, Kaua’i, Hawaii F small treelet of Desmanthusfruticosus Rose, Baja California, Mexico (Hughes 1532) G prostrate woody suffrutex of Desmanthusacuminatus Benth., Potosi, Bolivia (Hughes 2314) H shrub of Mimozyganthuscarinatus (Griseb.) Burkart, Santa Cruz, Bolivia (Hughes 2476) I shrub of Prosopidastrumglobosum (Gillies ex Hook. & Arn.) Burkart, Mendoza, Argentina J shrublet of Calliandropsisnervosa (Britton & Rose) H.M. Hern. & P. Guinet, Puebla, Mexico (Hughes 1784) K small treelet of Dichrostachyscinerea (L.) Wight & Arn., Kruger National Park, South Africa L small treelet of Alantsilodendronpilosum Villiers, S. Madagascar (Luckow 4162) M treelet of Gagnebinapterocarpa (Lam.) Baill., Madagascar N shrub of Dichrostachysvenosa Villiers, in dry spiny forest, southern Madagascar. Photo credits A, D–H, J CE Hughes B, C E Koenen I Estepa Patagónica K B Dupont L M Luckow M C Commenge naturetropicale N D Du Puy.

Figure 145.

Inflorescences and flowers of genera of the Dichrostachys clade ALemurodendroncapuronii Villiers & P. Guinet (Koenen 435) B inflorescence of Neptuniaplena (L.) Benth., basal flowers sterile with showy yellow petaloid staminodia (Wood 26650) C inflorescence of Leucaenaesculenta (Sessé & Mociňo ex DC.) Benth. (Hughes 1326) D inflorescences and tergeminate leaves of Kanaloakahoolawensis Lorence & K.R. Wood E fascicles of capitate inflorescences in axils of coevally developing leaves, Schleinitziafosbergii Nevling & Niezgoda F inflorescences of Desmanthusbicornutus S. Watson showing basal sterile flowers with exserted white showy staminodia (Hughes 1526) G capitate inflorescences of Prosopidastrumglobosum (Gillies ex Hook. & Arn.) Burkart H semi-spherical capitate inflorescences of Calliandropsisnervosa (Britton & Rose) H.M. Hern. & P. Guinet (Hughes 1784) I inflorescence of Alantsilodendronramosum Villiers J spicate inflorescences of Gagnebinapterocarpa (Lam.) Baill., the basal flowers sterile with showy white staminodia K spicate inflorescence of Dichrostachyscinerea (L.) Wight & Arn., basal flowers sterile with showy pink staminodia L compact spikes of Dichrostachysakataensis Villiers the basal flowers sterile with showy pale pink staminodia. Photo credits A E Koenen B, C, F, H, J, K CE Hughes D A Palomino E Lauren Gutierrez G D Cabral, Flora Mondocina I, L D Du Puy.

Figure 146.

Fruits of genera of the Dichrostachys clade A leaves and pod of Lemurodendroncapuronii Villiers & P. Guinet, north-eastern Madagascar (Koenen 429) BNeptuniaplena (L.) Benth. fruits dehiscing along the dorsal suture (Wood 26650) C ripe pods of Leucaenacruziana Britton & Rose, Oaxaca, Mexico (Hughes 1300) D cluster of unripe pods on a single inflorescence of Leucaenaleucocephala(Lam.)de Witsubsp.glabrata (Rose) S. Zárate, Honduras (Hughes 1557) E ripe pods of Desmanthusleptophyllus Kunth dehiscing along both sutures (Hughes 3098) F unripe fruit of Mezcalabalsensis (J.L. Contr.) C.E. Hughes & J.L. Contr., held erect, Guerrero, Mexico G ripe fruits of Mezcalabalsensis dehiscing from the apex along both sutures H, I unripe and ripe fruits of Kanaloakahoolawensis Lorence & K.R. Wood, cultivated at the Olinda rare plant propagation facility, Maui, Hawaii, USA J ripe fruits of Schleinitziainsularum (Guilemin) Burkart, the valves tardily splitting along both sutures but indehiscent K winged fruits of Gagnebinapterocarpa (Lam.) Baill., Madagascar L unripe, lomentiform fruits of Prosopidastrumglobosum (Gillies ex Hook. & Arn.) Burkart which break up into one- or few-seeded fragments when ripe M ripe fruits of Mimozyganthuscarinatus (Griseb.) Burkart, S Bolivia (Hughes 2476) N ripe fruits, elastically dehisced from the apex, Calliandropsisnervosa (Britton & Rose) H.M. Hern. & P. Guinet, Puebla, Mexico (Hughes 1784) O unripe coiled fruits of Dichrostachyscinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. P ripe fruits dehiscing elastically from the apex, Dichrostachysvenosa Villiers, southern Madagascar Q ripe fruits of Alantsilodendronpilosum Villiers, Madagascar. Photo credits A E Koenen B–E, M, N C Hughes F, G J Luis Contreras H, I A Palomino J G McCormack, Cook Islands Biodiversity K, P, Q D Du Puy L I Specogno, Flora Mendocina O Atamari (CC-BY-SA-3.0).

Figure 147.

Distribution of Lemurodendron based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 148.

Distribution of Neptunia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 149.

Distribution of Leucaena based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. Note that the pantropically cultivated and widely introduced species Leucaenaleucocephala (Lam.) de Wit, whose true native distribution remains unknown (Hughes 1998a), is not included in the map. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 150.

Distribution of Schleinitzia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 151.

Distribution of Mezcala based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 152.

Distribution of Kanaloa based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 153.

Distribution of Desmanthus based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 154.

Distribution of Mimozyganthus based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 155.

Distribution of Prosopidastrum based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 156.

Distribution of Piptadeniopsis based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 157.

Distribution of Calliandropsis based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 158.

Distribution of Dichrostachys based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 159.

Distribution of Gagnebina based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 160.

Distribution of Alantsilodendron based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 161.

Generic relationships in the Parkia clade (tribe Mimoseae). For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 162.

Morphological features of VachelliaA branches with spicate inflorescences of V.rigidula (Benth.) Seigler & Ebinger B habit of V.bidwillii (Benth.) Kodela (M. Simmons 3191) C inflorescences and leaves of V.farnesiana (L.) Wight & Arn. D habit of V.farnesianaE gall and spines of V.drepanolobium (Harms ex Y. Sjöstedt) P.J.H. Hurter F spines and inflorescences of V.cornigera (L.) Seigler & Ebinger (Seigler 16051) G partial leaf of V.cornigera with Beltian Bodies (Tamaulipas, Mexico) (Seigler 15962) H fruit of V.caven (Molina) Seigler & Ebinger I habit of V.schaffneri (S. Watson) Seigler & Ebinger J leaves and stems of V.karroo (Hayne) Banfi & Galasso K inflorescences and leaves of V.niloticasubsp.indica (Benth.) Kyal. & Boatwr. (Simmons 1032) L fruits of V.niloticasubsp.kraussiana (Benth.) Kyal. & Boatwr. Photo credits A D Seigler B, K J Simmons C, J S Navie D, F, G, I B Maslin E T Nicholls, Nature Education Center H RT Queiroz http://rubens-plantasdobrasil.blogspot.com/L D Kunjithapatham.

Figure 163.

Distribution of Vachellia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. The map includes records for introduced/naturalised taxa as well as native ones. For instance, most records in eastern Brazil are due to V.farnesiana, which is naturalised there. The Indian subcontinent may be under-sampled (see Deshpande et al. 2019). See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 164.

Morphological features of Anadenanthera (A–I) and Parkiasect.Platyparkia (J–L) AA.colubrina (Vell.) Brenan capitulum cut in half, at anthesis B capitula at anthesis and in bud C shrub DAnadenanthera sp. foliage and petiolar nectary EA.colubrina mature pods F mammillate projections on trunk G dehisced pods HA.peregrinavar.falcata (Benth.) Altschul mammillate trunks IA.peregrina(L.)Speg.var.peregrina trees with smooth trunks JParkiapendula (Willd.) Benth. ex Walp. (Hopkins & Hopkins 273), Neotropics, tree crown K capitulum at anthesis, nectar exuding from apical flowers L pods with enlarged adaxial suture secreting gum into which the seeds have fallen. Photo credits A–I RT Queiroz https://rubens-plantasdobrasil.blogspot.com/J–L MJG Hopkins and HCF Hopkins.

Figure 165.

Distribution of Anadenanthera based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. Occurrences in the West Indies may be due to pre-Colombian naturalisation. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 166.

Morphological features of Parkiasect.Parkia (A–L) and sect. Sphaeroparkia (M, N) AP.bicolor A. Chev. pendent capitulum approaching anthesis, Korup National Park, Cameroon BP.biglobosa (Jacq.) R. Br. ex G. Don pendent capitulum cut in half, Ibadan, Nigeria CP.decussata Ducke erect capitulum at anthesis, Neotropics (Hopkins & Hopkins 237) DP.timoriana (DC.) Merr. pendent capitulum, South East Asia (H.C.F. Hopkins 634) EP.gigantocarpa Ducke pendent capitulum and another cut in half, shortly post-anthesis, finger ring gives scale, Neotropics (Hopkins & Hopkins 298) FP.igneiflora Ducke pendent capitulum near anthesis, Neotropics (Hopkins & Hopkins 230) GP.speciosa Hassk., capitula at anthesis, Temburong, Brunei HP.discolor Spruce ex Benth. indehiscent pods nearing maturity, Neotropics (Hopkins & Hopkins 264) I, JP.bicolorI ripe indehiscent pod with yellow valves containing orange pulp, Bero Mts, Guinea-Conakry J immature pods, Korup National Park, Cameroon KP.cachimboensis H.C. Hopkins dehiscent pods lacking gum, the seeds attached by their funicles, Serra do Cachimbo, Brazil LP.igneifloravar.aurea Ducke vel aff. erect compound inflorescence axes projecting above the tree crown bearing pendent yellow capitula on short pendent peduncles, Cachoeira Berro d’Agua, AM, Brazil M, NP.multijuga Benth. M capitula at anthesis and in bud, Trombetas, Brazil N old pod from ground plus seeds, INPA, Manaus, Brazil. Photo credits A R Grünmeier B HCF Hopkins C–F, H, K, N MJG Hopkins and HCF Hopkins G I Nielsen I M Cheek J X van der Burgt L L Mello M unknown.

Figure 167.

Distribution of Parkia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. The presence of the West African P.biglobosa (Jacq.) R. Br. ex G. Don in Haiti, where it is naturalised, is not shown. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 168.

Phylogenetic relationships of Lachesiodendron in tribe Mimoseae. For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 169.

Lachesiodendronviridiflorum (Kunth) P.G. Ribeiro, L.P. Queiroz & Luckow A habit B inflorescence C pair of persistent spinescent stipules D fruits. Photo credits A, C, D PG Ribeiro B LP Queiroz.

Figure 170.

Distribution of Lachesiodendron based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 171.

Generic relationships in the Stryphnodendron clade (tribe Mimoseae). The most likely position of unsampled genus Microlobius is indicated with a dashed line [following Simon et al. (2016) and Lima et al. (2022)]. For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 172.

Flowering branches in the Stryphnodendron clade AGwilymiacoriacea (Benth.) A.G. Lima, Paula-Souza & Scalon (Simon 3482) BMicrolobiusfoetidus (Jacq.) M. Sousa & G. Andrade CStryphnodendronadstringens (Mart.) Coville DS.gracile Rizzini & Heringer EMarlimorimiabahiana (G.P. Lewis & M.P. Lima) L.P. Queiroz & L.M. Borges FPityrocarpamoniliformis (Benth.) Luckow & R.W. Jobson GParapiptadeniablanchetii (Benth.) Vaz & M.P. Lima HNaiadendronduckeanum (Occhioni) A.G. Lima, Paula-Souza & Scalon (Simon 1457). Photo credits A, H MF Simon B T Iwane C, D H Moreira E LP Queiroz F D Cardoso G PG Ribeiro.

Figure 173.

Habit and fruits in the Stryphnodendron clade AMarlimorimiapsilostachya (DC.) L.P. Queiroz & Marc.F. Simon showing the tree habit BStryphnodendronplatyspicum Rizzini & Heringer (Simon 2017) showing the geoxyle subshrub habit CGwilymiacoriacea (Benth.) A.G. Lima, Paula-Souza & Scalon (Simon 3730) DMicrolobiusfoetidus (Jacq.) M. Sousa & G. Andrade EStryphnodendronrotundifolium Mart. fruit, manually opened revealing internal septa and seeds FMarlimorimiacontorta (DC.) L.P. Queiroz & P.G. Ribeiro GNaiadendronduckeanum (Occhioni) A.G. Lima, Paula-Souza & Scalon (Pereira-Silva 15692) HParapiptadeniarigida (Benth.) Brenan showing a yellow inflorescence and dehiscing fruit IPityrocarpaleptostachya (Benth.) L.P. Queiroz & P.G. Ribeiro. Photo credits A R Aguilar B, C, E MF Simon D H Hulsberg F G Carvalho-Sobrinho G G Pereira-Silva H RT Queiroz https://rubens-plantasdobrasil.blogspot.com/I LM Borges.

Figure 174.

Distribution of Gwilymia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 175.

Distribution of Microlobius based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 176.

Distribution of Stryphnodendron based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 177.

Distribution of Marlimorimia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 178.

Distribution of Naiadendron based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 179.

Distribution of Parapiptadenia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 180.

Distribution of Pityrocarpa based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 181.

Generic relationships in the Mimosa clade (tribe Mimoseae). For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 182.

Adenopodia and Piptadenia diversity AAdenopodiagymnantha Brenan fruiting branch B fruits CPiptadeniaramosissima Benth., branch with prickles aligned along raised ribs DP.retusa (Jacq.) P.G. Ribeiro, Seigler & Ebinger, vegetative branch E, FP.micracantha Benth. E flowering branch F fruits. Photo credits A, B EOA Pérez C–F LP Queiroz.

Figure 183.

Distribution of Piptadenia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 184.

Distribution of Adenopodia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 185.

Mimosa vegetative diversity AM.dasilvae A.S.L. Silva & Secco, a shrub BM.pumilio Barneby, a geoxyle subshrub (Simon 3187) CM.dutrae Malme, a trailing subshrub DM.texanavar.filipes (Britton & Rose) Barneby, a tree (Simon 845) EM.oedoclada Barneby showing the indumentum composed by simple, glandular and setiform trichomes (Simon 2588) FM.supravisa Barneby showing a branch armed with prickles (Jordão 442). Photo credits A CO Andrino B, D–F MF Simon C N Dahmer.

Figure 186.

Mimosa leaf, inflorescence and fruit diversity AM.tequilana S. Watson showing bipinnate leaves with one pair of pinnae and two pairs of broad leaflets per pinna (Simon 813) BM.splendida Barneby showing multi-pinnate leaves with many small leaflets (Simon 739) CM.bimucronata (DC.) Kuntze showing capitate inflorescences (Simon 872) DM.benthamii J.F. Macbr. showing cylindrical inflorescences EM.irrigua Barneby showing a craspedium FM.foliolosa Benth. showing many unjointed craspedia. Photo credits A–C, F MF Simon D R Grether E D Cardoso.

Figure 187.

Distribution of Mimosa based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 188.

Generic relationships in the Senegalia grade (tribe Mimoseae). For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 189.

Morphological features of A–CSenegaliasect.Monacanthea s.s. and D–JSenegaliasect.SenegaliaA–CSenegaliaataxacantha (DC.) Kyal. & Boatwr. A lianescent shrub habit B branch showing internodal prickles C spicate inflorescence, Pretoria National Botanical Garden, South Africa D, ES.modesta (Wall.) P.J.H. Hurter D papery peeling bark on branch, living collection at Singapore Botanic Gardens E branch showing two prickles at nodes and leaves with few pinnae, Asia FS.catechu (L.f.) P.J.H. Hurter & Mabb. spicate inflorescence, South China Botanic Garden, Guangzhou GS.laeta (R. Br. ex Benth.) Seigler & Ebinger habit HS.senegal (L.) Britton three cauline prickles at nodes IS.goetzei (Harms) Kyal. & Boatwr. two cauline prickles at nodes and spicate inflorescence JS.polyacanthasubsp.campylacantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Kyal. and Boatwr. habit. Photo credits A P Birnbaum B S Piry C E Koenen D, E B Maslin F Y Chen G M Schmidt H A Dreyer I C Boucher Chisale J E Faust. A, B, G–J from African plants – A Photo Guide (www.africanplants.senckenberg.de).

Figure 190.

Morphological features of Senegaliasect.Monacanthea p.p. ASenegalia×emoryana (Benth.) Britton & Rose habit, New World BS.micrantha (Benth.) Britton & Rose leaf, New World CS.grandistipula (Benth.) Seigler & Ebinger large foliaceous stipules (such stipules not especially common in Senegalia) (Terra 715), New World DSenegalia×emoryana internodal prickles, New World ES.subsessilis Britton & Rose thin-textured fruits, New World FS.sakalava (Drake) Boatwr. globose scarlet inflorescence (scarlet flowers are rare in Senegalia but are found in several species from Madagascar) (Koenen 215), Madagascar GS.pruinescens (Kurz) Maslin, Seigler & Ebinger lianescent shrub habit and terminal paniculate inflorescences (insert of head showing calyx red in upper part) (Maslin 11023), Asia HS.pennatasubsp.insuavis (Lace) Maslin, Seigler & Ebinger liana habit (Maslin 11016), Asia IS.menabeensis (Villiers & Du Puy) Boatwr. spicate inflorescences (Du Puy M359), Madagascar JS.rugata (Lam.) Britton & Rose hard-textured pods, Macau, China KS.tonkinensis (I.C. Nielsen) Maslin, Seigler & Ebinger branch showing internodal prickles and two glands on petiole (uncommon in Senegalia) (Maslin 11041), Asia. Photo credits A, B, D, E, H B Maslin C V Terra F E Koenen G, K L Bai I D Du Puy J L-x Yuan.

Figure 191.

Distribution of Senegalia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. Note that the Indian subcontinent was only sparsely sampled for this map. Details of species distribution, based on states of India and other countries of the subcontinent, are provided in Deshpande et al. (2019). See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 192.

Morphology of Mariosousa, Parasenegalia and PseudosenegaliaAMariosousaacatlensis (Benth.) Seigler & Ebinger spicate inflorescences (Seigler 16002) BM.coulteri (Benth.) Seigler & Ebinger bark not papery CM.dolichostachya (S.F. Blake) Seigler & Ebinger branchlet unarmed (Seigler 16035) D–FM.salazari (Britton & Rose) Seigler & Ebinger D exfoliating papery bark (Seigler 16057) E habit F fruits (Seigler 15978) GM.usumacintensis (Lundell) Seigler & Ebinger leaf (Seigler 16027) HPseudosenegaliafeddeana (Harms) Seigler & Ebinger fruits (Atahuachi 1146) I, JParasenegaliamiersii (Benth.) Seigler & Ebinger (Terra, Coutinho & Dalvi 667) I branch showing unusual leaves (i.e., pinnae few and leaflets large) J inflorescences KPseudosenegaliafeddeana contorted tree habit. Photo credits A–G B Maslin H, K CE Hughes I, J V Terra.

Figure 193.

Distribution of Parasenegalia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 194.

Distribution of Pseudosenegalia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 195.

Distribution of Mariosousa based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 196.

Generic relationships in the Calliandra clade (tribe Mimoseae). For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 197.

Diversity of plant growth forms of the genera of the Calliandra clade A shrubby habit of Acaciellaangustissima(Mill.)Britton & Rosevar.angustissima, Texas, USA B treelet of Acaciellaangustissimavar.angustissima, Chiquimula, Guatemala (Hughes 1487) C shrub of Calliandramollissima (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Benth., Marañón Valley, Peru (Särkinen 2198) D stunted xerophytic shrublet of Afrocalliandraredacta (J.H. Ross) E.R. Souza & L.P. Queiroz, Kuboes, South Africa E stunted xerophytic shrublet of Calliandrachilensis Benth., northern Chile F small treelet of Calliandracalothyrsus Meisn., Siguatepeque, Honduras G shrub of Calliandracalifornica Benth., Baja California Sur, Mexico (Hughes 1546) H treelet of Calliandrafuscipila Harms, Serra do Espinhaço, Bahia, Brazil (Queiroz 15626) I, J functionally herbaceous geoxyle of Calliandralongipes Benth. arising from a stout lignotuber and resprouting and fruiting after fire in savanna woodland, Santa Cruz, Bolivia (Wood 26548) K geoxylic shrublet of Calliandramucugeana Renvoize, arising from a stout woody underground stem and forming carpet-like thickets, Serra do Espinhaço, Bahia, Brazil (Queiroz 15540). Photo credits A Ron Stephens, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/199321699) B, C, F–K CE Hughes D Pietermier, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/152398478) E J Jiménez Castillo.

Figure 198.

Variation in inflorescences of the genera of the Calliandra clade. A compound terminal panicle of capitula of Acaciellavillosa (Sw.) Britton & Rose, Oaxaca, Mexico (Hughes 1333) B capitula of Acaciellavillosa, Piura, Peru (Hughes 2635) C flowers of Afrocalliandraredacta (J.H. Ross) E.R. Souza & L.P. Queiroz, Kuboes, South Africa D erect terminal racemose inflorescence of Calliandracalothyrsus Meisn. flowering at night, Siguatepeque, Honduras (Macqueen 3) E erect terminal racemose inflorescence of Calliandrajuzepczukii Standl., Oaxaca, Mexico (Hughes 1675) F erect terminal inflorescence with buds and flowers opening acropetally, Calliandragrandiflora (L’Her.) Benth., Mexico City, Mexico G inflorescence of Calliandrataxifolia (Kunth) Benth., Mollendo, Arequipa, Peru (Hughes 2357) H heteromorphic inflorescence of Calliandramollissima (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd) Benth., Marañón Valley, Peru, showing central flowers with enlarged staminal tubes (Särkinen 2198) ICalliandranebulosa Barneby, Serra do Espinhaço, Bahia, Brazil (Queiroz 15624) J flowers of Calliandralongipinna Benth., Serra do Espinhaço, Bahia, Brazil (Queiroz 15603) K long pedicellate flowers of Calliandraleptopoda Benth., Serra do Espinhaço, Bahia, Brazil L leaves, foliaceous stipules and terminal inflorescences of Calliandralanata Benth., Serra do Espinhaço, Bahia, Brazil. Photo credits A, B, D, E, G–J CE Hughes C Pietermier, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/15308160) F Mvz-juangonzalezromero, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/195966667) K, L E de Souza.

Figure 199.

Variation in fruits across genera of the Calliandra clade A pendulous fruit of Acaciellaangustissima(Mill.)Britton & Rosevar.angustissima, Chiapas, Mexico B erect fruit and spinescent stipules of Afrocalliandraredacta (J.H. Ross) E.R. Souza & L.P. Queiroz, Kuboes, South Africa C, D fruits of Calliandrataxifolia (Kunth) Benth., Mollendo, Arequipa, Peru (Hughes 2357) C unripe green erect fruits D ripe fruits elastically dehiscent from the apex, the valves recurved backwards E ripe and unripe fruits of Calliandraluetzelburgii Harms, Serra do Espinhaço, Bahia, Brazil (Queiroz 15618) F unripe, green, erect fruits of Calliandraviscidula Benth., Serra do Espinhaço, Bahia, Brazil (Queiroz 15541) G, H fruits of Calliandrahoustoniana (Mill.) Standl., Chiapas, Mexico (Hughes 1271 & 1287) I unripe fruits of Calliandrachilensis Benth., northern Chile J unripe, erect fruits of CalliandrabahianaRenvoizevar.erythematosa Barneby, Serra do Espinhaço, Bahia, Brazil (Queiroz 15622). Photo credits A Neptalí Ramírez Marcial, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/199788369) B Pietermier, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/152398411) C–H, J CE Hughes I J Jiménez Castillo.

Figure 200.

Distribution of Acaciella based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 201.

Distribution of Afrocalliandra based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 202.

Distribution of Calliandra based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 203.

Generic relationships in the Zapoteca clade (tribe Mimoseae). Note that Calliandra p.p. represents a single taxon, which is currently unplaced [and is not the type species of Calliandra (see tribe notes and footnote on page 382)]. For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 204.

Morphological features of the Zapoteca clade A, BFaidherbiaalbida (Delile) A. Chev. A habit B leaves C, DSanjappa cynometroides (Bedd.) E.R. Souza & M.V. Krishnaraj C habit D pinnate leaves and inflorescence in bud EZapotecaaculeata (Spruce ex Benth.) H.M. Hern. foliage and inflorescences at anthesis (Neill 18437) FZapotecaformosasubsp.schottii (Torr. ex S. Watson) H.M. Hern. habit and dehisced fruits GViguieranthusglaber Villiers leaves and inflorescences post-anthesis. Photo credits A Gobabeb - Namib Research Institute B Dave U C, D G Suresh E D Neill F D Beckman G C Davidson.

Figure 205.

Inflorescence and fruit morphology in the Zapoteca clade A, BFaidherbiaalbida (Delile) A. Chev. A inflorescences at anthesis B indehiscent fruit C, DSanjappa cynometroides (Bedd.) E.R. Souza & M.V. Krishnaraj C inflorescence post-anthesis D pinnate leaves and immature fruit EThailentadopsistenuis (Craib) Kosterm. inflorescence FViguieranthusperrieri (R. Vig.) Villiers inflorescence at anthesis GViguieranthusalternans (Benth.) Villiers foliage and fruits before dehiscence HViguieranthusbrevipennatus Villiers inflorescence at anthesis (Randrianarivony 175) IZapotecatetragona (Willd.) H.M. Hern. inflorescence at anthesis JZapotecaportoricencis(Jacq.)H.M. Hern.subsp.portoricensis inflorescence at anthesis (Amith 74438) KZapotecaformosasubsp.schottii (Torr. ex S. Watson) H.M. Hern. dehisced fruit. Photo credits A S Piry B B Adkins C, D G Suresh Ehttps://marketingoemoffice.com/Data_Pithecellobium.htmlF F Ratovoson G F Rakotoarivony H T Randrianarivony I FJ Gómez Marín J J Amith K D Beckman.

Figure 206.

Distribution of Zapoteca based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 207.

Distribution of Viguieranthus based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 208.

Distribution of Faidherbia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 209.

Distribution of Thailentadopsis based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 210.

Distribution of Sanjappa based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 211.

Generic relationships in the Cojoba clade (tribe Mimoseae). For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 212.

Morphology of Cojoba clade A–CCojobaarborea (L.) Britton & Rose A habit B leaves C fruit DCojobagraciliflora (S.F. Blake) Britton & Rose in Mexico, fruit E–GHesperalbiziaoccidentalis (Brandegee) Barneby & J.W. Grimes E habit F trunk G leaves and fruits HLysilomacandidum Brandegee, habit lLysilomaacapulcense (Kunth) Benth. fruit J–NLysilomalatisiliquum (L.) Benth. J habit K trunk L leaves and stipule M flowers N fruit O, PLysilomatergeminum Benth., fruits. Photo credits A–C GA Romero González D, J–N R Duno de Stefano E–I, O, P CE Hughes.

Figure 213.

Distribution of Hesperalbizia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 214.

Distribution of Lysiloma based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 215.

Distribution of Cojoba based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 216.

Generic relationships in the Pithecellobium clade (tribe Mimoseae). For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 217.

Morphology of selected species of the Pithecellobium clade AEbenopsisebano (Berland.) Barneby & J.W. Grimes, fruit B, CHavardiaalbicans (Kunth) Britton & Rose B leaves C inflorescence DGretheriacampylacantha (L. Rico & M. Sousa) Duno & Torke, fruit ERicoaleptophylla (DC.) Duno & Torke, inflorescence and young flowers FPainteriaelachistophylla (A. Gray ex S. Watson) Britton & Rose, fruit GPithecellobiumdulce (Roxb.) Benth. habit HPithecellobiumunguis-cati (L.) Benth. inflorescence IPithecellobiumlanceolatum (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Benth. pod and seeds JPithecellobiumwinzerlingii Britton & Rose pod and seed KSphingaacatlensis (Benth.) Barneby & J.W. Grimes flowers LSphingaplatyloba (Bertero ex DC.) Barneby & J.W. Grimes flowers. Photo credits A, E, F, H R Duno de Stefano B, C, J GA Romero González D, I, K CE Hughes G D Pedersen L C Ramírez.

Figure 218.

Distribution of Pithecellobium based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 219.

Distribution of Sphinga based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 220.

Distribution of Havardia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 221.

Distribution of Gretheria based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 222.

Distribution of Ricoa based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 223.

Distribution of Painteria based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 224.

Distribution of Ebenopsis based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 225.

Generic relationships in the Archidendron clade (tribe Mimoseae). For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 226.

Habit and leaf morphology diversity in genera of the Archidendron clade AArchidendronclypearia (Jack) I.C. Nielsen BHeliodendronthozetianum (F. Muell.) Gill.K. Br. & Bayly CFalcatariafalcata (L.) Greuter & R. Rankin DHeliodendronbasalticum (F. Muell.) Gill.K. Br. & Bayly ESeriantheskanehiraeFosbergvar.kanehiraeFSeriantheskanehiraevar.yapensis Fosberg GPararchidendronpruinosum (Benth.) I.C. Nielsen HParaseriantheslophanthasubsp.montana (Jungh.) Benth. with tomentose stems and leaves IWallaceodendroncelebicum Koord. Photo credits A C Ng B R Cumming C J Teo D D Richter E, F JB Friday G G Brown H F and K Starr I Plantoholic Sheila.

Figure 227.

Inflorescence and flower diversity of genera in the Archidendron clade AArchidendronvaillantii (F. Muell.) F.Muell. BArchidendropsispaivana (E. Fourn.) I.C. Nielsen CFalcatariafalcata (L.) Greuter & R. Rankin DHeliodendronthozetianum (F. Muell.) Gill.K. Br. & Bayly ESerianthes sp. FPararchidendronpruinosum (Benth.) I.C. Nielsen GParaseriantheslophantha (Willd.) I.C. Nielsen HWallaceodendroncelebicum Koord. Photo credits A, F A Furhmann B B Henry C JB Friday D S Worboys E T Rodd G AndyBonsai H Plantaholic Sheila.

Figure 228.

Fruit and seed diversity of genera in the Archidendron clade A fruit of Archidendronlucyi F. Muell. (Brown 169) B open pod of Archidendropsisstreptocarpa (E. Fourn.) I.C. Nielsen showing winged seeds C opened pod of Falcatariafalcata (L.) Greuter & R. Rankin DHeliodendronxanthoxylon (C.T. White & W.D. Francis) Gill.K. Br. & Bayly opened pod (Hyland 9229) EHeliodendronbasalticum (F. Muell.) Gill.K. Br. & Bayly winged seeds (Canning & B. Rimes 6173) F–HSerianthesdilmyi Fosberg showing the indehiscent (to very tardily dehiscent) (rarely) woody pods with transverse seeds which are each isolated in a chamber IPararchidendronpruinosum (Benth.) I.C. Nielsen fruit and seedling JParaseriantheslophantha (Willd.) I.C. Nielsen immature pods (Brown 204A) KWallaceodendroncelebicum Koord. pod. Photo credits A, I, J G Brown B B Henry C JB Friday D, E Queensland Herbarium F–H R CJ Lim K Plantaholic Sheila.

Figure 229.

Distribution of Wallaceodendron based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 230.

Distribution of Falcataria based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 231.

Distribution of Serianthes based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 232.

Distribution of Archidendropsis based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 233.

Distribution of Pararchidendron based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 234.

Distribution of Archidendron based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 235.

Distribution of Heliodendron based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 236.

Distribution of Paraserianthes based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 237.

Diversity in habit and foliage of AcaciaA arborescent habit of A.cyperophyllavar.omearana Maslin B ‘Minni Ritchi’ bark of A.grasbyi Maiden C prostrate habit of A.pulviniformis Maiden D shrub habit of A.brachybotrya Benth. EA.argyrophylla Hook. showing 1-veined phyllodes and globose inflorescences F bipinnate foliage of A.leucocladasubsp.argentifolia Tindale GA.spondylophylla F. Muell. showing phyllodes arranged in regular whorls along branches HA.alatavar.biglandulosa Meisn. showing decurrent phyllodes that form bifarious wings along branches IA.tetraptera Maslin showing unusually small phyllodes (B.R. Maslin 5792). Photo credits A, C, E, H, I B Maslin B A George D D Murphy F L Jessup G K Brennan.

Figure 238.

Diversity in inflorescences and flowers of AcaciaA heads in terminal panicle and racemes of A.pyrifoliaDC.var.pyrifolia (B.R. Maslin 8425) B heads in racemes of A.neriifolia A. Cunn. ex Benth. C axillary heads of A.heterochroaMaslinsubsp.heterochroa (B.R. Maslin 4766) D axillary spikes with densely arranged flowers of A.fecunda Maslin (B.R. Maslin 8762) E spikes with loosely arranged flowers and arranged in short racemes of A.leptostachya Benth. Photo credits A, C, D B Maslin B unknown E IB Armitage.

Figure 239.

Diversity in fruits and seeds of AcaciaA pods of A.catenulatasubsp.occidentalis Maslin that readily break into 1-seeded loments (B.R. Maslin 8880) B fruits of the ‘Mulga’ species A.incurvaneura Maslin & J.E.Reid (B.R. Maslin 9304B) CA.ancistrocarpa Maiden & Blakely fruits are superficially similar to those of CalliandraDA.ampliceps Maslin showing brittle fruits with seeds having bright red aril (bird dispersed) (B.R. Maslin 8660) EA.coolgardiensis Maiden showing terete fruits F irregularly coiled fruits of A.auriculiformis A. Cunn ex Benth. showing seeds encircled by showy aril. Photo credits A–E B Maslin F K Brennan.

Figure 240.

Distribution of Acacia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. Note that Acaciaconfusa Merr. is widely planted in the Philippines and Taiwan, making it difficult to distinguish native from introduced occurrences. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 241.

Phylogenetic position of Cedrelinga and Pseudosamanea in tribe Mimoseae. For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 242.

Cedrelingacateniformis (Ducke) Ducke, the only species in the genus A tree in a natural park environment in Guyana B trunk showing the rough and striate bark C flowering branch with foliage and inflorescences D extrafloral nectaries at the point of insertion on the leaflets (arrowheads) E flowers grouped into hemispherical capitula F loment, showing the articles rotated between them G separate mature articles. Photo credits A, B, F © S Sébastien Sant / Parc amazonien de Guyane (Cedrelingacateniformis (Ducke) Ducke, 1922-Description, detailed sheet (mnhn.fr) C, D, E unknown-BIOWEB (Galería Bioweb Ecuador) G RB Foster © Field Museum of Natural History - CC BY-NC 4.0 (Cedrelingacateniformis | Fotos de Campo | The Field Museum).

Figure 243.

Distribution of Cedrelinga based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 244.

General morphology in Pseudosamanea species A, B, E, GPseudosamaneacarbonaria (Britton) E.J.M. Koenen (left) A habit B exfoliating bark E bipinnate microphyllidious leaves and umbelliform capitula G papery oblong laterally compressed pods C, D, F, HPseudosamaneaguachapele (Kunth) Harms (right) C habit D exfoliating bark F bipinnate macrophyllidious leaves and umbelliform capitula H papery oblong laterally compressed fruits. Scale bars: 2 cm (E); 4 cm (F); 3 cm (G); 2.5 cm (H). Photo credits A Bioexploradores Farallones, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/30575576) B, D, H A Fonseca-Cortés C Juan Manuel de Roux, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/112891215) E Juan Manuel de Roux, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/54043095) F Cynthia Tercero, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/59667691) G Juan Carlos Delgado Madrid, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/64538395).

Figure 245.

Distribution of Pseudosamanea based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 246.

Generic relationships in the Jupunba clade (tribe Mimoseae). For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 247.

Jupunba clade flowers (A–E) and fruits (F–K) AHydrochoreacorymbosa (Rich.) Barneby & J.W. Grimes BHydrochoreauaupensis M.P. Morim, Iganci & E.J.M. Koenen CJupunbalangsdorffii (Benth.) M.V.B. Soares, M.P. Morim & Iganci DPseudalbizzianiopoides (Spruce ex Benth.) E.J.M. Koenen & Duno EPseudalbizziapolycephala (Benth.) E.J.M. Koenen & Duno FPseudalbizziainundata (Mart.) E.J.M. Koenen & Duno GHydrochoreacorymbosaHHydrochoreauaupensisI, JHydrochoreapedicellaris (DC.) M.V.B. Soares, Iganci & M.P. Morim KJupunbacampestris (Benth.) M.V.B. Soares, M.P. Morim & Iganci. Photo credits A, G, I–K MVB Soares B, C, H J Iganci D–F RT Queiroz https://rubens-plantasdobrasil.blogspot.com/.

Figure 248.

Distribution of Pseudalbizzia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 249.

Distribution of Punjuba based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 250.

Distribution of Hydrochorea based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 251.

Distribution of Jupunba based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 252.

Phylogenetic relationship of the Samanea clade (tribe Mimoseae). For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 253.

Flower, fruit and vegetative characters of the Samanea clade ASamaneainopinata (Harms) Barneby & J.W. Grimes, tree, Brazil B, CSamaneasaman (Jacq.) Merr. B inflorescences in bud and mature flower, El Salvador (Hughes 1241) C bipinnate leaves, Sri Lanka DSamaneainopinata, rough bark of trunk and main branches, Brazil E, FSamaneasamanE flowers, cultivated in Hawaii F fruits GChloroleuconmangense (Jacq.) Barneby & J.W. Grimes, trunk bark, Comayagua valley, Honduras H, IChloroleuconacacioides (Ducke) Barneby & J.W. Grimes H fruits, Mato Grosso, Brazil I foliage and inflorescences, Brazil JChloroleuconfoliolosum (Benth.) G.P. Lewis, foliage and fruit, Bahia, Brazil (Lewis 1972). Photo credits A, D, F E Ner B, G CE Hughes C P Rajatewa E GD Carr H D Sasaki I D Cardoso J GP Lewis.

Figure 254.

Distribution of Samanea based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 255.

Distribution of Chloroleucon based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 256.

Generic relationships in the Albizia clade (tribe Mimoseae). Clades within Albizia are indicated in Suppl. materials 2, 3. For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 257.

Habit diversity of the Albizia clade AAlbiziaatakataka Capuron, a densely branched small tree in dry thorn-scrub in south-western Madagascar BA.anthelmintica Brongn., a small tree flowering before the leaves appear, in semi-arid regions of southern Africa CA.corniculata (Lour.) Druce, a scandent shrub or liana in humid forests in continental South East Asia, the Philippines and northern Borneo DAlbizia sp. (Koenen 434), a large tree in semi-deciduous forest in north-western Madagascar EA.tanganyicensis Baker f., a small tree in dry savanna woodland and (sub)montane grassland in southern and eastern Africa FBoliviadendronbolivianum (C.E. Hughes & Atahuachi) E.R. Souza & C.E. Hughes (Hughes 2608), a tree in seasonally dry tropical forest in Bolivia GEnterolobiumcyclocarpum (Jacq.) Griseb. (Hughes 1254) H trunk of E.contortisiliquum (Vell.) Morong, both trees of seasonally dry and semi-deciduous forests of South and Central America. Photo credits A, D, E, H E Koenen B A Dreyer, www.africanplants.senckenberg.deC Biobank Lantauhk (Hong Kong), iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/66503444) F, G CE Hughes.

Figure 258.

General and vegetative morphology of the Albizia clade AAlbiziachinensis (Osbeck) Merr., flowering branch (Koenen 190) B cultivated A.julibrissin Durazz., flowering branch CA.glaberrima Benth., foliage and inflorescences DA.zygia J.F. Macbr., flowering branch EA.polyphylla Fourn., finely bipinnate foliage (Koenen 256) FA.atakataka Capuron, dense branching with the leaves arising from brachyblasts (Koenen 229) GA.laurentii De Wild., flower buds and quadrifoliolate bipinnate leaves HA.tanganyicensis Baker f., leaf IA.gummifera C.A. Sm., detail of pinna with rhombic leaflets JBoliviadendronbolivianum (C.E. Hughes & Atahuachi) E.R. Souza & C.E. Hughes, foliage and flowers (Hughes 2423) KEnterolobiumcontortisiliquum (Vell.) Morong, foliage LE.timbouva Mart., detail of pinna. Photo credits A, E, F, H E Koenen B M Fitzgerald C G Baumann D W Dijkstra G D Harris I I Dinter J CE Hughes K A Martinez Ponte, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/195358543) L F Acaz Sonntag, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/216600814) B–D, G, Iwww.africanplants.senckenberg.de.

Figure 259.

Inflorescences of the Albizia clade AAlbiziagrandibracteata Taub., strongly dimorphic capitula (Koenen 159) BA.mainaea Villiers of AlbiziasectionZygia, strongly dimorphic capitula (Koenen 426) CA.chinensis (Osbeck) Merr., more cryptic dimorphic capitula (Koenen 190) DA.lebbeck (L.) Benth., more cryptic dimorphic capitula EA.procera (Roxb.) Benth., homomorphic capitula FA.anthelmintica Brongn., dimorphic capitula GA.atakataka Capuron, dimorphic capitula (Koenen 229) HA.forbesii Benth., dimorphic capitula IA.zimmermannii Harms, homomorphic capitula JBoliviadendronbolivianum (C.E. Hughes & Atahuachi) E.R. Souza & C.E. Hughes, homomorphic capitula (Hughes 2423) KEnterolobiumcyclocarpum (Jacq.) Griseb., homomorphic capitula (Hughes 1254). Photo credits A–C, G, H E Koenen D M Schmidt E R Cumming, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/168379143) F I Dinter I C Boucher Chisale J, K CE Hughes D, F, Iwww.africanplants.senckenberg.de.

Figure 260.

Fruits of the Albizia clade AAlbizialebbeck (L.) Benth., flat papery fruits and BA.procera (Roxb.) Benth., flat papery fruits CA.moniliformis (DC.) F. Muell., lomentaceous fruits DA.ferruginea (Guill. & Perr.) Benth., flat papery fruits (Harris 9726) EA.boivinii Fourn., flat papery fruits (Koenen 376) FA.commiphoroides Capuron, moniliform fruits G of A.masikororum R. Vig., thick woody fruits HBoliviadendronbolivianum (C.E. Hughes & Atahuachi) E.R. Souza & C.E. Hughes, flat papery fruits (Hughes 2423) IEnterolobiumcontortisiliquum (Vell.) Morong, thick coriaceous ear-shaped fruits (Queiroz 15579) JE.monjollo (Vell.) Mart., thick coriaceous ear-shaped fruits (Lima 7911). Photo credits A G Baumann www.africanplants.senckenberg.deB I Cowan, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/54408314) C R Cumming, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/200251197) D D Harris www.africanplants.senckenberg.deE, I, J E Koenen F Désiré Ravelonarivo, Tropicos (https://www.tropicos.org/ImageFullView.aspx?imageid=100291301) G SE Rakotoarisoa, iNaturalist (https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/3113769) H CE Hughes.

Figure 261.

Distribution of Albizia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 262.

Distribution of Boliviadendron based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 263.

Distribution of Enterolobium based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 264.

Generic relationships in the Inga clade (tribe Mimoseae). For description of phylogeny and support values, see Fig. 6 caption (page 63).

Figure 265.

Foliage, inflorescence and fruits in Inga clade A, BBlanchetiodendronblanchetii (Benth.) Barneby & J.W. Grimes A flowering branch showing the capitate inflorescences clustered in efoliate pseudoracemes B detail of the heteromorphic capitate inflorescence CLeucochloronlimae Barneby & J.W. Grimes leafless branch showing homomorphic capitate inflorescences and follicle fruits DAbaremadiamantina E. Guerra, Iganci & M.P. Morim with axillary homomorphic capitate inflorescences E, FRobrichiaschomburgkii (Benth.) A.R.M. Luz & E.R. Souza E young branch with the characteristic rusty pubescent indumentum F detail of a homomorphic capitate inflorescences GOsodendronaltissimum (Hook. f.) E.J.M. Koenen detail of a homomorphic capitate inflorescence H, IMacrosamaneaamplissima (Ducke) Barneby & J.W.Grimes H flowering branch with a homomorphic capitate inflorescence I bracts with showy extrafloral nectaries and visiting ants. Photo credit: A, B, D D Cardoso C GP Lewis E G Perez Huertas F F Oviedo-Brenes G E Bidaut H, I J Iganci.

Figure 266.

Fruit diversity in Inga clade A young pod of Blanchetiodendronblanchetii (Benth.) Barneby & J.W. Grimes B, CLeucochloronincuriale (Vell.) Barneby & J.W. Grimes B dehisced follicular fruits exposing the seeds (C) D lomentiform fruit of Osodendronaltissimum (Hook. f.) E.J.M. Koenen E indehiscent and internally septate pod of Osodendronleptophyllum (Harms) E.J.M. Koenen F auriculiform indehiscent pod of Robrichiaschomburgkii (Benth.) A.R.M. Luz & E.R. Souza G young fruit of Abaremacochliacarpos (Gomes) Barneby & J.W. Grimes H dehisced twisted pod of Abaremadiamantina E. Guerra, Iganci & M.P. Morim exposing the reddish endocarp and bicoloured seeds I dehisced follicle of Macrosamaneaamplissima (Ducke) Barneby & J.W.Grimes J Young fruits of Zygiabrenesii (Standl.) L. Rico K dehisced pods of Zygiacognata (Schltdl.) Britton & Rose L–O Indehiscent pods of Inga, with fleshy and sweety sarcotesta around the seeds LIngagrazielae (Vinha) T.D. Penn. MIngacapitata Desv. NIngaingoides (Rich.) Willd. OIngaedulis Mart. Photo credits A, H LP Queiroz B NA Escobar C J Vieira D D Harris E P Latham, www.africanplants.senckenberg.deF LCampbell G, M, N RT Queiroz http://rubens-plantasdobrasil.blogspot.com/I J Iganci J F Chinchila Romero K S de Jesus Calva L, O D Cardoso.

Figure 267.

Distribution of Blanchetiodendron based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 268.

Habitat and habit diversity in Inga clade AAbaremacochliacarpos (Gomes) Barneby & J.W. Grimes, arborescent shrub in sandy coastal scrub BRobrichiaschomburgkii (Benth.) A.R.M. Luz & E.R. Souza, buttressed emergent tree in rainforests CLeucochloronincuriale (Vell.) Barneby & J.W. Grimes, tree with thick corky bark in semi-deciduous forests DIngabifoliolata D.B.O.S. Cardoso & Amorim, scandent treelet of rainforest understory EZygiajuruana (Harms) L. Rico treelet of the Amazonian inundated forests (igapó) FOsodendrondinklagei (Harms) E.J.M. Koenen, giant tree from the Guinean forests in West tropical Africa. Photo credits A RT Queiroz https://rubens-plantasdobrasil.blogspot.com/B G Perez Huertas C F Ventura D, E D Cardoso F W Hawthorne.

Figure 269.

Distribution of Leucochloron based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 270.

Distribution of Abarema based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 271.

Distribution of Robrichia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 272.

Distribution of Osodendron based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 273.

Distribution of Macrosamanea based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 274.

Leaf and inflorescence diversity in Zygia and Inga (Inga clade) AZygiajuruana (Harms) L. Rico, dense cauliflorous capitate inflorescences BZygiaselloi (Benth.) L. Rico with elongate cauliflorous spikes C part of a leaf of Ingaingoiodes (Rich.) Willd. showing the winged leaf rachis and extrafloral nectaries between leaflet insertions D dense pyramidal spike of Ingagrazielae (Vinha) T.D. Penn. E elongate cylindrical spikes of Ingamarginata Willd. F pedunculate capitate inflorescence of Ingacordistipula Mart. G terminal panicle of Ingavera Kunth. Photo credits A, D, F D Cardoso B M Magenta C, E, G RT Queiroz https://rubens-plantasdobrasil.blogspot.com/.

Figure 275.

Distribution of Zygia based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.

Figure 276.

Distribution of Inga based on quality-controlled digitised herbarium records. See Suppl. material 1 for the source of occurrence data.