Colistin-, cefepime-, and levofloxacin-resistant Salmonella enterica serovars isolated from Egyptian chicken carcasses

Abstract

Objectives: The emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Salmonella strains, especially resistant ones toward critically important antimicrobial classes such as fluoroquinolones and third- and fourth-generation cephalosporins, is a growing public health concern. The current study, therefore, aimed to determine the prevalence, and existence of virulence genes (invA, stn, and spvC genes), antimicrobial resistance profiles, and the presence of β-lactamase resistance genes (bla_OXA, bla_CTX-M1, bla_SHV, and bla_TEM) in Salmonella strains isolated from native chicken carcasses in Egypt marketed in Mansoura, Egypt, as well as spotlight the risk of isolated MDR, colistin-, cefepime-, and levofloxacin-resistant Salmonella enterica serovars to public health.

Methods: One hundred fifty freshly dressed native chicken carcasses were collected from different poultry shops in Mansoura City, Egypt between July 2022 and November 2022. Salmonella isolation was performed using standard bacteriological techniques, including pre-enrichment in buffered peptone water (BPW), selective enrichment in Rappaport Vassiliadis broth (RVS), and cultivating on the surface of xylose-lysine-desoxycholate (XLD) agar. All suspected Salmonella colonies were subjected to biochemical tests, serological identification using slide agglutination test, and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) targeting the invasion A gene (invA; Salmonella marker gene). Afterward, all molecularly verified isolates were screened for the presence of virulence genes (stn and spvC). The antimicrobial susceptibility testing for isolated Salmonella strains towards the 16 antimicrobial agents tested was analyzed by Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method, except for colistin, in which the minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) was determined by broth microdilution technique. Furthermore, 82 cefotaxime-resistant Salmonella isolates were tested using multiplex PCR targeting the β-lactamase resistance genes, including bla_OXA, bla_CTX-M1, bla_SHV, and bla_TEM genes.

Results: Salmonella enterica species were molecularly confirmed via the invA Salmonella marker gene in 18% (27/150) of the freshly dressed native chicken carcasses. Twelve Salmonella serotypes were identified among 129 confirmed Salmonella isolates with the most predominant serotypes were S. Kentucky, S. Enteritidis, S. Typhimurium, and S. Molade with an incidence of 19.4% (25/129), 17.1% (22/129), 17.1% (22/129), and 10.9% (14/129), respectively. All the identified Salmonella isolates (n = 129) were positive for both invA and stn genes, while only 31.8% (41/129) of isolates were positive for the spvC gene. One hundred twenty-one (93.8%) of the 129 Salmonella-verified isolates were resistant to at least three antibiotics. Interestingly, 3.9%, 14.7%, and 75.2% of isolates were categorized into pan-drug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant, and multidrug-resistant, respectively. The average MAR index for the 129 isolates tested was 0.505. Exactly, 82.2%, 82.2%, 63.6%, 51.9%, 50.4%, 48.8%, 11.6%, and 10.1% of isolated Salmonella strains were resistant to cefepime, colistin, cefotaxime, ceftazidime/clavulanic acid, levofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, azithromycin, and meropenem, respectively. Thirty-one out (37.8%) of the 82 cefotaxime-resistant Salmonella isolates were β-lactamase producers with the bla_TEM as the most predominant β-lactamase resistance gene, followed by bla_CTX-M1 and bla_OXA genes, which were detected in 21, 16, and 14 isolates respectively).

Conclusion: The high prevalence of MDR-, colistin-, cefepime-, and levofloxacin-resistant Salmonella serovars among Salmonella isolates from native chicken is alarming as these antimicrobials are critically important in treating severe salmonellosis cases and boost the urgent need for controlling antibiotic usage in veterinary and human medicine to protect public health.

Keywords: Antimicrobial resistance; Chicken meat; Salmonella serovars; Virulence genes; β-lactamase.

Fig. 1

Serological identification of the 129 Salmonella enterica Serovars isolates recovered from native Egyptian chicken carcasses

Fig. 2

Representative agarose gel electrophoresis for PCR assay of the virulence genes detected in Salmonella species. A invA (244 bp); B stn (480 bp); C spvC (467 bp) in Salmonella isolates recovered from native Egyptian chicken carcasses. M; DNA marker (100-bp gene ladder). C+; Control positive, C–Control negative. Ten microliters of the PCR product were separated by electrophoresis on 1.5% agarose gel and visualized under UV light

Fig. 3

Representative agarose gel electrophoresis for multiplex PCR screening of β-lactamase-resistant genes demonstrated by bla_OXA (564 bp), bla_CTX-M1 (655 bp), bla_SHV (713 bp), and bla_TEM (800 bp) detected in Salmonella isolates recovered from the native Egyptian chicken carcasses. M; DNA marker (100-bp gene ladder). C+ Control positive, C– Control negative. Lane 1: S. Enteritidis (bla_CTX-M1- and bla_TEM-positive); Lane 2: S. Labadi (bla_TEM-positive); Lane 3: S. Apeyeme (bla_CTX-M1-positive); Lane 4: S. Kentucky (bla_OXA-, bla_CTX-M1-, and bla_TEM-positive); Lane 5: S. Enteritidis (bla_TEM-positive); Lane 6: S. Typhimurium (bla_CTX-M1- and bla_TEM-positive); Lane 7: S. Typhimurium (bla_CTX-M1-positive); Lane 8: S. Apeyeme (bla_OXA-positive); Lane 9: S. Kentucky (bla_TEM-positive); Lane 10: S. Kentucky (bla_CTX-M1- and bla_TEM-positive); Lane 11: S. Enteritidis (bla_OXA-positive); Lane 12: S. Kentucky (bla_CTX-M1-positive). Seven microliters of the PCR product were loaded and separated by electrophoresis on 1.5% agarose gel and visualized under UV light

Fig. 4

Distribution of the identified β-lactamase resistance genes among the cefotaxime-resistant Salmonella isolates (n = 82)