Exploring cumulative identity-based discrimination, distress, and traumatic exposure among Muslims living in the United States

Abstract

Objective: Muslims living in the United States (MLUS), a highly heterogeneous group, experience high rates of discrimination that may cumulatively contribute to traumatic stress. This study explored whether identity-based discrimination (i.e., due to religion, gender, race) was individually and cumulatively associated with psychological distress and exposure to trauma among MLUS.

Method: Fifty-nine MLUS completed the survey at two time points (~1 year apart). We administered measures of discrimination (at Time 1), distress (at Times 1 and 2), and trauma exposure (at Time 2). Multiple linear regressions determined whether discrimination at Time 1 was associated with traumatic exposure or distress at Time 2, after controlling for covariates. Mediation analyses determined whether the relationship between cumulative discrimination and distress at Time 2 occurred via distress at Time 1.

Results: MLUS who reported experiencing both religious and racial discrimination also reported greater exposure to traumatic events, after controlling for covariates. All three forms of identity-based discrimination (religion, race, gender) were individually and cumulatively (i.e., experiencing all three) associated with distress at Time 1, but not Time 2. However, the relationships between cumulative discrimination at Time 1 and distress at Time 2 were mediated by distress at Time 1. U.S.-born Muslims were particularly at risk for experiencing discrimination, distress, and traumatic exposure.

Conclusion: Experiences of discrimination may have a cumulative impact on trauma and psychological distress among MLUS. This study underscores the need for targeted interventions that assess MLUS clients' discriminatory experiences to develop a more holistic conceptualization, better support systems, and the most effective approaches. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).