Adverse health effects of exposure to plastic, microplastics and their additives: environmental, legal and policy implications for Israel

Abstract

Background: Israel is a regional "hotspot" of plastic pollution, with little discussion of potential adverse health effects from exposure to plastic. This review aims to stimulate discussion and drive policy by focusing on these adverse health effects.

Main body: Plastics are synthetic polymers containing additives which can leach from food- and beverage-contact plastic into our food and beverages, and from plastic textiles onto our skin. Plastics persist in the environment for generations, fragmenting into MNPs: Micro (1 micron-5 mm)-Nano (1 nm-1 micron)-Plastic, which contaminate our atmosphere, water, and food chain. MNP can enter the human body through ingestion, inhalation and touch. MNP < 10 microns can cross epithelial barriers in the respiratory and gastrointestinal systems, and fragments < 100 nm can cross intact skin, enabling entry into body tissues. MNP have been found in multiple organs of the human body. Patients with MNP in atheromas of carotid arteries have increased risk of a combined measure of stroke, cardiovascular disease, and death. Toxic additives to plastics include bisphenols, phthalates, and PFAS, endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) which cause dysregulation of thyroid function, reproduction, and metabolism, including increased risk of obesity, diabetes, endometriosis, cancer, and decreased fertility, sperm count and quality. Fetal exposure to EDCs is associated with increased rates of miscarriages, prematurity and low birth weight. There is likely no safe level of exposure to EDCs, with increasing evidence of trans-generational and epigenetic effects. There are several existing Israeli laws to reduce plastic use and waste. Taxes on single-use plastic (SUP) were recently cancelled. There are many gaps in regulatory standards for food-, beverage- and child- safe plastic. Existing standards are poorly enforced.

Conclusion: Reduction in production and use of plastic, promotion of recycling and reduction of leaching of toxic additives into our food and beverages are essential policy goals. Specific recommendations: Periodic monitoring of MNP in bottled beverages, food, indoor air; Strengthen enforcement of standards for food-, beverage-, and child-safe plastic; Renew tax on SUPs; National ban on SUP at public beaches, nature reserves and parks; Ban products manufactured with MNP; Increase research on sources and health outcomes of exposure to MNP and EDCs.

Keywords: Adverse health effects; International treaties and conventions; Israeli regulations; MNP in beverages, food, PCP, indoor and outdoor air; Microplastics and nanoplastics; Plastic pollution; Standards and policy; Toxic additives.

Fig. 1

a Flowchart representing components of plastic of concern to human health; b Classification of plastic and fragmentation particles by size and shape. EDC Endocrine disrupting chemicals; PFAS Per-and Polyfluorinated Substances. Citations: a [–4]; b [5]. *Chemical additives not covered in this article

Fig. 2

Sources of exposure to MNP and exposure line indicating the sizes that can cross epithelial barriers of the GI tract, respiratory tract, and skin. Citations: Ingestion [–36]; Inhalation [–, , –43]; Transdermal [26, 40, 44, 45]; Exposure line [, , –46]. * Not covered in this paper

Fig. 3

Exposure to MNP through the vulnerable stages of infancy and childhood. Citations: In utero: Placenta [54, 55]; Newborn: Meconium and infant stools [56, 57]; Breast milk: [57, 58]; Bottle feeding: [50, 57]; Oral exploration[40, 59, 60]; Childhood activities: [–, –65]

Fig. 4

Organs of the human body in which MNP have been found. Citations: [, , , , –71]

Fig. 5

Leaching of toxic additives from plastic to food and beverages and how to reduce exposure. Citations:; Leaching [, , , –114]; Do’s and Don’ts for use of food contact plastic [112]

Fig. 6

Plastic pollution in Israel. Citations: [, –128]