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. 2024 Aug 28;13(17):5115.
doi: 10.3390/jcm13175115.

Three-Dimensionally Printed Elastic Cardiovascular Phantoms for Carotid Angioplasty Training and Personalized Healthcare

Krystian Jędrzejczak  1 , Arkadiusz Antonowicz  1   2 , Beata Butruk-Raszeja  1 , Wojciech Orciuch  1 , Krzysztof Wojtas  1 , Piotr Piasecki  3 , Jerzy Narloch  3 , Marek Wierzbicki  3 , Łukasz Makowski  1
Affiliations

Three-Dimensionally Printed Elastic Cardiovascular Phantoms for Carotid Angioplasty Training and Personalized Healthcare

Krystian Jędrzejczak et al. J Clin Med. .

Abstract

Background/Objective: Atherosclerosis is becoming increasingly common in modern society. Owing to the increasing number of complex angioplasty procedures, there is an increasing need for training in cases where the risk of periprocedural complications is high. Methods: A procedure was developed to obtain three-dimensional (3D) models and printing of blood vessels. The mechanical and optical properties of the printed materials were also examined. Angioplasty and stent implantation were tested, and the phantom was compared with the clinical data of patients who underwent interventional treatment. Both laser techniques and cone-beam computed tomography of the phantoms were used for comparison. Results: The printed material exhibited mechanical parameters similar to those of blood vessel walls. The refractive index of 1.473 ± 0.002 and high transparency allowed for non-invasive laser examination of the interior of the print. The printed models behaved similarly to human arteries in vivo, allowing training in treatment procedures and considering vessel deformation during the procedure. Models with stents can be analyzed using laser and cone-beam computed tomography to compare stents from different manufacturers. Conclusions: The developed methodology allows for simple and time-efficient production of personalized vessel phantoms.

Keywords: 3D printing; PIV; atherosclerosis; carotid artery stenting; percutaneous angioplasty.

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Conflict of interest statement

Author Arkadiusz Antonowicz was employed by the company Eurotek International Sp.z o.o. and also was Ph.D. Candidate at Warsaw University of Technology. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Three-dimensionally printed geometries after post-processing.
Figure 2
Figure 2
(A) Geometry used for refractive index matching and printing accuracy measurements. (B) Refractive index matching for glycerin solution without NaI; RI = 1.3965. (C) Refractive index matching for glycerin solution with NaI; RI = 1.4741. (D) Refractive index matching for glycerin solution with NaI; RI = 1.4730. (E) Refractive index matching for glycerin solution with NaI; RI = 1.4716. Almost invisible stenosis shape. (F) Refractive index matching for glycerin solution with NaI; RI = 1.4875.
Figure 3
Figure 3
(a) Experimental setup for measurements of internal dimensions of 3D prints, (left) laser off and (right) laser on. (b) PIV laser-illuminated geometry contours. (c) PIV laser-illuminated complex geometry contours. (d) Marking the line of comparison dimension between the 3D print and virtual model of stenosis.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Experimental setup for percutaneous carotid artery stenting procedure.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Young’s modulus [MPa] vs. curing time.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Three-dimensionally printed geometry I after post-processing.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Three-dimensionally printed geometry II after post-processing.
Figure 8
Figure 8
Three-dimensionally printed geometry III after post-processing.
Figure 9
Figure 9
Three-dimensionally printed geometry IV after post-processing.
Figure 10
Figure 10
Comparison of stents for two exposures, (A,C)—dense mesh (Roadsaver™—Carotid Artery Stent), (B,D)—sparse mesh (Protégé™ RX—Carotid Artery Stent).
Figure 11
Figure 11
Comparison of artery model before (A) and after (B) inflating the balloon.
Figure 12
Figure 12
Comparison of artery with Carotid WALLSTENT™ after angioplasty with stent placement (A) and carotid artery model (B) with carotid artery stent before (C) and after (D) inflating the balloon.
Figure 13
Figure 13
Comparison of CT images: (A) geometry without stent, (B) with Roadsaver™—Carotid Artery Stent, (C) with Protégé™ RX—Carotid Artery Stent.
Figure 14
Figure 14
Comparison of CT images: (A) geometry without stent, (B) with Carotid WALLSTENT™.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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