The Evolution of Illicit-Drug Detection: From Conventional Approaches to Cutting-Edge Immunosensors-A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

The increasing use of illicit drugs has become a major global concern. Illicit drugs interact with the brain and the body altering an individual's mood and behavior. As the substance-of-abuse (SOA) crisis continues to spread across the world, in order to reduce trafficking and unlawful activity, it is important to use point-of-care devices like biosensors. Currently, there are certain conventional detection methods, which include gas chromatography (GC), mass spectrometry (MS), surface ionization, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), surface plasmon resonance (SPR), electrochemiluminescence (ECL), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), etc., for the detection of abused drugs. These methods have the advantage of high accuracy and sensitivity but are generally laborious, expensive, and require trained operators, along with high sample requirements, and they are not suitable for on-site drug detection scenarios. As a result, there is an urgent need for point-of-care technologies for a variety of drugs that can replace conventional techniques, such as a biosensor, specifically an immunosensor. An immunosensor is an analytical device that integrates an antibody-based recognition element with a transducer to detect specific molecules (antigens). In an immunosensor, the highly selective antigen-antibody interaction is used to identify and quantify the target analyte. The binding event between the antibody and antigen is converted by the transducer into a measurable signal, such as electrical, optical, or electrochemical, which corresponds to the presence and concentration of the analyte in the sample. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of various illicit drugs, the conventional methods employed for their detection, and the advantages of immunosensors over conventional techniques. It highlights the critical need for on-site detection and explores emerging point-of-care testing methods. The paper also outlines future research goals in this field, emphasizing the potential of advanced technologies to enhance the accuracy, efficiency, and convenience of drug detection.

Keywords: conventional methods; illicit drugs; immunosensors; point-of-care testing methods.

Figure 1

Chemical structures of some illicit drugs.

Figure 2

Representation of an immunosensor: illicit drugs in different spiked samples (1), screen-printed electrode for antibody-based detection (2), and electrochemical analysis using a potentiostat (3).

Figure 3

Classification of Immunosensors based on the transducer mechanism.

Figure 4

Multiplexed electrochemical immunosensor using a screen-printed electrode employing gold NPs for the detection of morphine (MOR), Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and benzoylecgonine (BZC) in spiked urine samples.

Figure 5

Schematic diagram for the fabrication of PCFS for MA detection in spiked biological fluids using SA-Bio-HRP nanocomposite.

Figure 6

Schematic diagrammatic representation of piezoelectric immunosensor with quartz-gold nanoparticle altered electrode deposition for detecting morphine at different concentrations and temperatures.