In vivo assessment of pediatric kidney function using multi-parametric and multi-nuclear functional magnetic resonance imaging: challenges, perspectives, and clinical applications

Abstract

The conventional methods for assessing kidney function, such as glomerular filtration rate and microalbuminuria, provide only partial insight into kidney function. Multi-parametric and multi-nuclear functional resonance magnetic imaging (MRI) techniques are innovative approaches to unraveling kidney physiology. Multi-parametric MRI includes various sequences to evaluate kidney perfusion, tissue oxygenation, and microstructure characterization, including fibrosis-a key pathological event in acute and chronic kidney disease and in transplant patients-without the need for invasive kidney biopsy. Multi-nuclear MRI detects nuclei other than protons. ²³Na MRI enables visualization of the corticomedullary gradient and assessment of tissue sodium storage, which can be particularly relevant for personalized medicine in salt-wasting tubular disorders. Meanwhile, ³¹P-MRS measures intracellular phosphate and ATP variations, providing insights into oxidative metabolism in the muscle during exercise and recovery. This technique can be useful for detecting subclinical ischemia in chronic kidney disease and in tubulopathies with kidney phosphate wasting. These techniques are non-invasive and do not involve radiation exposure, making them especially suitable for longitudinal and serial assessments. They enable in vivo evaluation of kidney function on a whole-organ basis within a short acquisition time and with the ability to distinguish between medullary and cortical compartments. Therefore, they offer considerable potential for pediatric patients. In this review, we provide a brief overview of the main imaging techniques, summarize available literature data on both adult and pediatric populations, and examine the perspectives and challenges associated with multi-parametric and multi-nuclear MRI.

Keywords: 23Na MRI; 31P magnetic resonance imaging spectroscopy; BOLD; DWI; Kidney physiology; Multi-nuclear MRI; Multi-parametric MRI.

A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information

Fig. 1

Overview of common multi-parametric and multi-nuclear resonance magnetic imaging techniques

Fig. 2

A Images of the kidneys acquired via BOLD-MRI in a healthy subject. B ²³Na MRI of the leg in a healthy child. [Na⁺] measurement was possible by linear trend analysis, using three calibration vials containing increasing concentrations of NaCl solution. Tissue [Na⁺] is displayed as heat map, with greater signal intensity proportional to tissue [Na⁺]. C ²³Na MRI along the kidney long axis in a healthy volunteer. D The acquired ³¹ P-MRS spectra showing phosphate (Pi), phospho-creatine (PCr), α, β-, and γ-ATP resonance peaks. The peak areas can be used to calculate concentrations, and the relative peak positions of Pi and PCr can be used to calculate the intracellular pH