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. 2024 Dec 27;9(12):6630-6637.
doi: 10.1021/acssensors.4c02198. Epub 2024 Nov 22.

Noninvasive Total Cholesterol Level Measurement Using an E-Nose System and Machine Learning on Exhaled Breath Samples

Anna Paleczek  1 , Justyna Grochala  2 , Dominik Grochala  1 , Jakub Słowik  1   3 , Małgorzata Pihut  2 , Jolanta E Loster  4 , Artur Rydosz  1   5
Affiliations

Noninvasive Total Cholesterol Level Measurement Using an E-Nose System and Machine Learning on Exhaled Breath Samples

Anna Paleczek et al. ACS Sens. .

Abstract

In this paper, the first e-nose system coupled with machine learning algorithm for noninvasive measurement of total cholesterol level based on exhaled air sample was proposed. The study was conducted with the participation of 151 people, from whom a breath sample was collected, and the level of total cholesterol was measured. The breath sample was examined using e-nose and gas sensors, such as TGS1820, TGS2620, TGS2600, MQ3, Semeatech 7e4 NO2 and 7e4 H2S, SGX_NO2, SGX_H2S, K33, AL-03P, and AL-03S. The LGBMRegressor algorithm was used to predict cholesterol level based on the breath sample. Machine learning algorithms were developed for the entire measurement range and for the norm range ≤200 mg/dL achieving MAPE 13.7% and 8%, respectively. The results show that it is possible to develop a noninvasive device to measure total cholesterol level from breath.

Keywords: E-nose system; LGBMRegressor; exhaled breath analysis; gas sensors; machine learning; noninvasive measurement; predictive modeling; total cholesterol level.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Composition of inhaled and exhaled air.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Metabolic pathway of cholesterol and its relationship to isoprene in breath.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Distribution of cholesterol levels among the study participants.
Figure 4
Figure 4
E-nose system used during measurements.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Stages of the breath sample measurement using the developed e-nose system.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Results of prediction of the total cholesterol level in the entire range.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Results of prediction of the total cholesterol level in the norm range.
Figure 8
Figure 8
Bland-Altman plot of predictions of total cholesterol level in the norm range.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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