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. 2024 Nov 15;17(22):5581.
doi: 10.3390/ma17225581.

Upscaling of Copper Slag-Based Geopolymer to 3D Printing Technology

Barbara Kozub  1 , Mateusz Sitarz  2 , Szymon Gądek  1 , Celina Ziejewska  3 , Katarzyna Mróz  2 , Izabela Hager  2
Affiliations

Upscaling of Copper Slag-Based Geopolymer to 3D Printing Technology

Barbara Kozub et al. Materials (Basel). .

Abstract

Additive manufacturing using cement has evolved rapidly in recent decades, revolutionizing the construction industry. This technology automates building structures through computer-aided design, offering benefits such as reduced material waste, optimized material distribution, and the ability to use composite materials. This paper aims to examine the potential of using copper-slag-based geopolymers in 3D printing. Geopolymers have gained popularity as an alternative and more energy-efficient material to traditional building materials, while copper slag allows for reducing and managing mining industry waste. Moreover, samples formed in molds based on the same material were produced to evaluate the method of manufacturing on the mechanical properties of geopolymers. This paper presents an evaluation of the mechanical properties including the compressive, flexural, and shear strength of the layered material. It reveals promising results, with strength development mainly observed within the first 14 days. The results show that the compressive strength after 28 days of curing is 46.4 MP and 42.1 MPa for formed and printed samples, respectively. Furthermore, the average bending strength value ranges between 7.4 MPa and 7.8 MPa, regardless of the bending direction and forming method. The obtained results show that printed geopolymers demonstrate adequate layer bonding, confirming the profitability of the 3D printing technology. This research confirms that 3D printing technology enables the use of geopolymer binder materials based on copper slag, which opens the door to sustainable alternatives in construction practices.

Keywords: 3D printing; copper slag; forming in mold; geopolymer; mechanical properties.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
The particle size distribution curve (blue line) and the cumulative curve (violet line) of copper slag.
Figure 2
Figure 2
XRD patterns of Koranel copper slag.
Figure 3
Figure 3
The schematic of the process for the 3D-printed sample preparation.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Instrumentation used during 3D printing of samples based on copper slag.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Prints made of geopolymer binder based on copper slag.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Test stand for compressive test: (a) formed samples, (b) printed samples.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Bending strength testing: (a) formed samples, (b,c) printed samples, (d) load direction.
Figure 8
Figure 8
Tensile strength test for printed samples: (a) holding the sample for testing, (b) sample after testing.
Figure 9
Figure 9
Shear strength testing of printed samples and the direction of loading in relation to the layers.
Figure 10
Figure 10
Compressive strength results for: (a) formed samples, (b) printed samples.
Figure 11
Figure 11
Bending strength results: (a) formed samples, (b,c) printed samples with load in various directions.
Figure 12
Figure 12
Test results for printed samples: (a) tensile strength, (b) shear strength.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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