Identification of 10,000-year-old rice beer at Shangshan in the Lower Yangzi River valley of China

Abstract

The origins of rice domestication and the beginnings of alcoholic fermentation in China are intriguing research topics, with the Shangshan culture in the Lower Yangzi River region being a focal point of archaeological investigations. This study employs a multiproxy approach (phytolith, starch, and fungi) to analyze microfossil remains associated with pottery vessels from the earliest phase of the Shangshan site (ca. 10,000 to 9,000 cal. BP). The results indicate that rice was consumed as a dietary staple and used for brewing fermented beverages with a qu starter containing Monascus mold and yeast as fermentation agents. The fermentation ingredients included rice, supplemented with other cereals (Job's tears, Panicoideae, and Triticeae), acorn, and lily. This rice-fungi-based multiplant brewing method marked the earliest-known alcoholic fermentation technique in East Asia. The emergence of this fermentation technology is attributable to the early development of rice domestication and the arrival of the wet-warm Holocene climate, which was favorable for fungal growth. These alcoholic beverages likely played a pivotal role in ceremonial feasting, highlighting their ritual function as a driving factor that may have stimulated the intensive utilization and widespread cultivation of rice in Neolithic China.

Keywords: Early pottery; fermented beverages; fungi; qu starter; rice.

Fig. 1.

Site locations and artifacts. (A) Locations of the Shangshan, Qiaotou, and Xiaohuangshan sites (dots) and the distribution area of the Shangshan culture (red circle). (B) Selected pottery sherds analyzed. 1: cup sherd (CUP); 2: jar sherd (JAR3); 3: jar sherd (JAR5); 4: rim sherd from sand-tempered cooking pot (POT); 5: large basin sherd (LBAS); 6: base of the ring foot bowl (BWL). (C) Corresponding complete vessels. 1: globular jar; 2: ring foot bowl; 3: cup; 4: flat-based jar; 5: large basin.

Fig. 2.

Common phytolith types identified from samples of the Shangshan Culture. (A) Domesticated rice bulliform. (B) Wild rice bulliform. (C) Phragmites bulliform. (D) Square (bulliform). (E) Rectangular (bulliform). (F) Polylobate. (G) Rice husk. (H and I) Tall saddle. (J) Squat saddle. (K) Bilobate. (L) Rondel. (M) Gymnosperm. (N) Trapeziform sinuate. (O) Spheroid ornate. (P) Elongate cavate. (Q) Unciform hair cell. (R) Elongate smooth. (S) Elongate echinate. (T) Vascular tissue. (U) Pteridophyte. Scale. (V) Scanning electron microscope of Spheroid ornate. The black scale bar, 20 μm.

Fig. 3.

Assemblages of major phytolith types identified from Shangshan samples. The black circle indicates that the percentage of phytoliths is 0.1 to 0.2%.

Fig. 4.

Examples of starch types and damaged forms from Shangshan pottery. 1: Type I rice compound showing extinction crosses; 2: Type I rice compound exhibiting birefringence without crosses; 3: Type I rice compound showing weak birefringence; 4: Type I rice compound, granules becoming separated; 5: Type II Job’s tears, showing various shapes; 6: Type III Panicoideae (likely barnyard), showing deep channels due to enzymatic digestion; 7: Type IV Triticeae, showing deep channels and micropitting due to enzymatic digestion; 8: Type V acorn, similar to Cyclobalanopsis fleuryi; 9: Type V acorn, similar to Quercus fabri; 10: Type V acorn compound, similar to Lithocarpus glaber or C. fleuryi, also showing missing part due to enzymatic digestion; 11: Type V acorn, similar to Lithocarpus brevicaudatus; 12: Type VI lily; 13: gelatinized starch mass; 14,15: gelatinized starches resembling rice compound granules, stained with trypan blue.

Fig. 5.

Fungal elements from Shangshan pottery compared with modern Monascus mold. (1 to 10 Shangshan material). 1: Development of ascogenous hyphae, comparable with 16:d-f; 2: ascogenous development phase, comparable with 11 and 16:a; 3: cleistothecium connected with a hypha; 4.5: round and oval mature cleistothecia, showing numerous ascospores inside, compared with 12,13; 6: mycelium, compared with 14; 7: hypha, septate; 8,9: yeast cells with protrusions, probably in budding process; 10: oval shape yeast cell. (11 to 15 modern Monascus and yeast). 11: ascogenous development phase; 12,13: round and oval mature cleistothecia; 14: mycelium; 15: Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast; 16: developmental stages of Monascus from ascospore forming vegetative hyphae to matured ascogonium (: figure 2); 17: M. purpureus in various developmental phases, a-c: ascogenous; d, e: immature; f: mature (: figure 4-6).

Fig. 6.

Comparative analysis of rice bulliform fish-scale facet numbers among Shangshan and modern rice samples. (A) Comparisons of the numbers of rice bulliform fish-scale facets. (B) Comparisons of the percentages of rice bulliforms with ≥9 fish-scale facets. a: Modern wild rice field; b: early Shangshan samples (CUP, JAR2, JAR6, CONT1); c: middle Shangshan sample (CONT2); d: modern domesticated rice paddy. The red dashed line represents the domestication threshold as evaluated by rice phytoliths. The data for modern references are cited from refs. , .

Fig. 7.

Comparison of starch, fungi, and rice husk phytoliths among different pottery types. (A) Fermentation vessels. (B) serving vessels. (C) food processing vessel. (D) cooking vessel.

Fig. 8.

Reconstruction of the production–consumption process involving pottery and food in early Shangshan culture. (A) Plant procurement: collecting wild plants and harvesting rice. (B) plant processing: for food and pottery making. (C) food processing: cooking food and making qu starter with molds, yeast, and rice. (D) food consumption: eating and drinking.