Polysaccharide-Based Hydrogels for Advanced Biomedical Engineering Applications

Abstract

In recent years, numerous applications of hydrogels using polysaccharides have evolved, benefiting from their widespread availability, excellent biodegradability, biocompatibility, and nonpoisonous nature. These natural polymers are typically sourced from renewable materials or from manufacturing processes, contributing collaboratively to waste management and demonstrating the potential for enhanced and enduring sustainability. In the field of novel bioactive molecule carriers for biotherapeutics, natural polymers are attracting attention due to their inherent properties and adaptable chemical structures. These polymers offer versatile matrices with a range of architectures and mechanical properties, while retaining the bioactivity of incorporated biomolecules. However, conventional polysaccharide-based hydrogels suffer from inadequate mechanical toughness with large swelling properties, which prohibit their efficacy in real-world applications. This review offers insights into the latest advancements in the development of diverse polysaccharide-based hydrogels for biotherapeutic administrations, either standalone or in conjunction with other polymers or drug delivery systems, in the pharmaceutical and biomedical fields.

Figure 1

Structural representations of different polysaccharides such as chitosan, cellulose, dextran, hyaluronic acid, linear amylose, and branched amylose.

Figure 2

Illustration depicting (a) The reaction mechanism involved in the hydrogel preparation process. (b) Modification of I2/HP-β-CD to the fibers of the gel skeleton. (c) The ability of the hydrogel to release l-glu and iodine in contact with the infected wound site, (d) Bacterial death and the subsequent wound recovery. Reprinted with permission from ref (59). Copyright (2024) American Chemical Society.

Scheme 1. Stepwise Illustration of the Preparation Process for EPI⊂AG-G5 Gels

Adapted from Matai, I. and P. Gopinath, chemically cross-linked hybrid nanogels of alginate and PAMAM dendrimers as efficient anticancer drug delivery vehicles. Reprinted with permission from ref (64). Copyright (2016) American Chemical Society.

Figure 3

(A) Representation of real images of virgin and healed gel sample of COL-CS hydrogels: (a) COL-CS (1:1), (b) COL-CS (1:2), and (c) CS; (B) Illustration depicting the proposed healing mechanism. Reprinted with permission from ref (72). Copyright (2020) American Chemical Society.

Figure 4

Mechanical behavior of CS gel using alkaline and acidic solvents. (a) Compressive analysis of as-prepared composite hydrogels. (b) Compressive analysis of as-prepared composite hydrogels at low strain range. (c) Real images of CS hydrogels before and after compression tests. Reprinted or adapted with permission under a Creative Commons (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) from ref (74). Copyright (2016) Springer Nature.

Figure 5

(a) Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image of composite hydrogel. (b) Photographic representation of agar diffusion analysis for both Tannic Acid (TA) and TA-loaded blend hydrogels. (c) Determination of inhibition zone diameters for E. coli, S. aureus, and MRSA in the presence of TA and TA-loaded hydrogels. Reprinted with permission from ref (81). Copyright (2018) American Chemical Society.

Figure 6

Demonstration of adhesive behavior of as-prepared Starch-Ca/CGC hydrogels; (a) Depicting the adhesion property of the Starch@Ca/CGC hydrogel to various substrates. (b) Compression, stretching state; (c) Images illustrating the resilient resistance to joint bending exhibited by the pliable and flexible Starch@Ca/CGC hydrogel. (d) Schematic representation of the characteristic interactions involved in the adhesion of hydrogels to biological tissues. (e) Schematic illustration of the lap shear test. (f, g) Determination of tissue adhesive strength in Starch@Ca and Starch@Ca/CGC hydrogels through a lap shear test on porcine skin, with a representative test image inset. Reprinted with permission from ref (92). Copyright (2024), American Chemical Society.

Figure 7

(a) General mechanism of pH-dependent structure and swelling in polysaccharide-based polyelectrolyte complex hydrogels. (b) Typical behavior of a pH-responsive polymer hydrogel for drug delivery applications. The cationic hydrogel swells in acidic conditions and shrinks in basic conditions, releasing its cargo. Conversely, anionic hydrogels swell in basic conditions and shrink in acidic conditions.

Figure 8

SEM images showcasing the porous structure of (a) HA-CD-DEX-50, (b) HA-CD-DEX-100, and (c) HA-CD-DEX-150 hydrogels, (d) compressive properties, (e) equilibrium water content in PBS, and (f) resveratrol release from HA-CD-DEX-150 hydrogel. Reproduced with permission from ref (179). Copyright (2019), Elsevier.

Figure 9

An in vivo study involved the application of hEGF-loaded PEP–PAM hydrogels for treating full-thickness skin wounds on the backs of rats. The digital paragraphs encompass different aspects of the study, including quantitative analysis of wound healing (A), the progress at 3, 5, 10, and 15 days (B), histomorphology observation of wound healing with different treatments (C), and Masson’s staining assessment on the 14th day (D) treating with 0.9% NaCl, hEGF (1.0 mg/mL), hydrogel, and hEGF-loaded hydrogel. Reprinted with permission from ref (188). Copyright (2021) American Chemical Society.