Revolutionizing cancer treatment: the rise of personalized immunotherapies

Abstract

Interest in biological therapy for cancer has surged due to its precise targeting of cancer cells and minimized impact on surrounding healthy tissues. This review discusses various biological cancer therapies, highlighting advanced alternatives over conventional chemotherapy alone. It explores DNA and RNA-based vaccines, T-cell modifications, adoptive cell transfer, CAR T cell therapy, angiogenesis inhibitors, and the combination of immunotherapy with chemotherapy, offering a holistic view of the potential in cancer treatment. Additionally, it discusses the role of nanotechnology in increasing the efficacy of cancer-targeting drugs, as well as cytokine and immunoconjugate therapies for bolstering immune system effectiveness against neoplastic cells. The potential of gene potential for precise targeting of cancer-linked genes and the application of oncolytic viruses against virus-associated cancers are also discussed. The review identifies significant advancements in the targeted treatment of cancer by biological methods. It acknowledges the challenges, including drug resistance and the need for high specificity in certain therapies, while also highlighting the effectiveness of cancer vaccines, modified T-cells, and oncolytic viruses. Biological therapies are a promising frontier in cancer treatment, offering the potential for more personalized and effective therapeutic strategies. Despite existing challenges, ongoing research and clinical trials are fundamental for overcoming current limitations and enhancing the efficacy of biological therapies in cancer care.

Keywords: Adoptive cell transfer; Angiogenesis inhibitors; Biological therapies; CAR T-cell therapy; Cancer vaccines; Gene therapy; Immunotherapy; Targeted drug therapy.

Fig. 1

Mechanisms of action of anticancer vaccines and immune activation. The vaccine, containing components such as dendritic cells, cancer cells, synthetic peptides, and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), is administered to the patient. Once injected, these components are processed in the lymph nodes, causing the activation of CD4 + T cells and CD8 + T cells. The activated CD4 + T cells assist in further activating CD8 + T cells, which in turn release cytokines that have an important role in increasing the immune system's response to cancer cells. As a result, the immune cells infiltrate the cancer tissue causing the death of cancer cells. Symbol: ↑increase

Fig. 2

Adoptive Cell Transfer Therapy (ACT) in cancer treatment. The process begins with the collection of peripheral blood from an oncologic patient, followed by the isolation of T cells. Simultaneously, tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes are also extracted directly from the patient’s tumor. Both undergo a phase of activation and selection, where T cells are stimulated to enhance their cancer-suppressing abilities. Subsequently, these T cells are genetically modified to express specific tumor-targeting receptors, either TCR (T cell receptors) or CAR (chimeric antigen receptors). The engineered T cells are then expanded in the laboratory to create a large quantity of targeted anti-cancer cells. The final step involves re-infusing these modified T cells back into the same patient, where they are expected to find and destroy cancer cells, offering personalized and targeted cancer therapy

Fig. 3

A scheme showing targeted action of an antibody–drug conjugate (ADC) against cancer cells. ADC is composed of an antigen-specific antibody, a stable linker, and a potent cytotoxic agent. The conjugate selectively binds to a corresponding antigen receptor expressed on the surface of a cancer cell. Following receptor-mediated endocytosis, ADC is internalized, and subsequent intracellular conditions facilitate the cleavage of the linker; this cleavage releases the cytotoxic agent into the cytoplasm of the cancer cell, where it causes the death of the cancer cell