An application-based taxonomy for brain-computer interfaces

Jacob T Robinson^{1

2

3}, Sumner L Norman⁴, Matthew R Angle⁵, Timothy G Constandinou^{6

7}, Timothy Denison⁸, John P Donoghue^{9

10

11}, Ryan M Field¹², Andreas Forsland¹³, Sid Kouider¹⁴, José Del R Millán^{15

16

17}, Jonathan A Michaels¹⁸, Amy L Orsborn^{19

20

21}, Chethan Pandarinath^{22

23}, J Andrew Pruszynski²⁴, Christopher J Rozell²⁵, Nishal P Shah²⁶, Maryam M Shanechi²⁷, Mahsa Shoaran²⁸, Sameer A Sheth²⁹, Sergey D Stavisky³⁰, Eric Trautmann^{30

31}, Nicolas Vachicouras³², Chong Xie^{26

33}

Affiliations

¹ Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA. jtrobinson@rice.edu.
² Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA. jtrobinson@rice.edu.
³ Motif Neurotech Inc, Houston, TX, USA. jtrobinson@rice.edu.
⁴ Forest Neurotech, Los Angeles, CA, USA. sumner@forestneurotech.org.
⁵ Paradromics Inc, Austin, TX, USA.
⁶ Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Imperial College London, London, UK.
⁷ Mint Neurotechnologies Ltd, London, UK.
⁸ Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
⁹ Department of Neuroscience and School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.
¹⁰ Robert J and Nancy D Carney Institute for Brain Science, Providence, RI, USA.
¹¹ Center for Neurorestoration and Neurotechnology, Rehabilitation Research and Development Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Providence, RI, USA.
¹² Kernel, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
¹³ Cognixion Corporation, Santa Barbara, CA, USA.
¹⁴ CNRS, Paris, France.
¹⁵ Chandra Family Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
¹⁶ Department of Neurology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
¹⁷ Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
¹⁸ School of Kinesiology and Health Science, Faculty of Health, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
¹⁹ Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
²⁰ Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
²¹ Washington National Primate Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA.
²² Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.
²³ Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
²⁴ Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.
²⁵ School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.
²⁶ Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA.
²⁷ Ming Hsieh Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
²⁸ Institutes of Electrical and Micro Engineering and Neuro-X, EPFL, Ecublens, Switzerland.
²⁹ Department of Neurosurgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
³⁰ Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, Davis, CA, USA.
³¹ CTRL-Labs at Reality Labs, Seattle, WA, USA.
³² Neurosoft Bioelectronics SA, Geneva, Switzerland.
³³ Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA.

PMID: 39715900
DOI: 10.1038/s41551-024-01326-z

An application-based taxonomy for brain-computer interfaces

Jacob T Robinson et al. Nat Biomed Eng. 2025 Jun.

. 2025 Jun;9(6):789-791.

doi: 10.1038/s41551-024-01326-z.

Authors

Affiliations

¹ Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA. jtrobinson@rice.edu.
² Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA. jtrobinson@rice.edu.
³ Motif Neurotech Inc, Houston, TX, USA. jtrobinson@rice.edu.
⁴ Forest Neurotech, Los Angeles, CA, USA. sumner@forestneurotech.org.
⁵ Paradromics Inc, Austin, TX, USA.
⁶ Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Imperial College London, London, UK.
⁷ Mint Neurotechnologies Ltd, London, UK.
⁸ Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
⁹ Department of Neuroscience and School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.
¹⁰ Robert J and Nancy D Carney Institute for Brain Science, Providence, RI, USA.
¹¹ Center for Neurorestoration and Neurotechnology, Rehabilitation Research and Development Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Providence, RI, USA.
¹² Kernel, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
¹³ Cognixion Corporation, Santa Barbara, CA, USA.
¹⁴ CNRS, Paris, France.
¹⁵ Chandra Family Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
¹⁶ Department of Neurology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
¹⁷ Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
¹⁸ School of Kinesiology and Health Science, Faculty of Health, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
¹⁹ Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
²⁰ Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
²¹ Washington National Primate Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA.
²² Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.
²³ Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
²⁴ Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.
²⁵ School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.
²⁶ Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA.
²⁷ Ming Hsieh Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
²⁸ Institutes of Electrical and Micro Engineering and Neuro-X, EPFL, Ecublens, Switzerland.
²⁹ Department of Neurosurgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
³⁰ Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, Davis, CA, USA.
³¹ CTRL-Labs at Reality Labs, Seattle, WA, USA.
³² Neurosoft Bioelectronics SA, Geneva, Switzerland.
³³ Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA.

PMID: 39715900
DOI: 10.1038/s41551-024-01326-z

No abstract available

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

Competing interests: J.T.R. is a shareholder, director and employee of Motif Neurotech, Inc. S.L.N. is a director and employee of Forest Neurotech. T.D. is founder and director of Amber Therapeutics, non-exec chairman of Mint Neurotechnologies Ltd. and advisor for Cortec Neuro. N.V. is a shareholder, director and employee of Neurosoft Bioelectronics S.A., a Swiss company building BCIs. M.M.S. is an inventor on patents or patent applications related to neural decoding and stimulation. R.M.F. is a shareholder, director and employee of Kernel. A.L.O. is a scientific advisor for Meta Reality Labs. S.A.S. is a shareholder of Motif Neurotech, and has consulting agreements with Neuropace, Boston Scientific, Zimmer Biomet and Koh Young. A.F. is a shareholder, director and employee of Cognixion Corporation. M.R.A. is a shareholder, director and employee of Paradromics, Inc. C.J.R. is an inventor on intellectual property related to neurotechnology, and a shareholder and member of the scientific advisory board of Motif Neurotech, Inc. S.D.S. is an inventor on patents or patent applications related to BCIs and is an advisor to Sonera. T.G.C. is a shareholder and director of Mint Neurotechnologies, Ltd. M.S. is an inventor on patents or patent applications related to neural decoding and stimulation. C.X. is an inventor on intellectual property related to neurotechnology, and a shareholder of Neuralthread, Inc. J.P.D. is a shareholder and board member of Pathmaker Neurosystems, and an advisor to Neurable and to Beacon Biosignals. All other authors declare no competing interests.

References

1. Wolpaw, J. R., Millán, J. D. R. & Ramsey, N. F. in Handbook of Clinical Neurology Vol. 168 (eds Ramsey, N. F. & Millán, J. D. R.) 15–23 (Elsevier, 2020).
1. BCI Definition (BCI Society, 2019); https://bcisociety.org/bci-definition
1. Hofmann, U. G. & Stieglitz, T. Nat. Commun. 15, 6207 (2024). - DOI - PubMed - PMC
1. ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 43: Brain–Computer Interfaces (ISO, 2022); https://www.iso.org/committee/9082407.html
1. Neurotechnology Regulation (Regulatory Horizons Council, 2022); https://go.nature.com/3VnwBCm

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An application-based taxonomy for brain-computer interfaces

Affiliations

An application-based taxonomy for brain-computer interfaces

Authors

Affiliations

Conflict of interest statement

References

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